OCR Specification focus:
‘the Instrument of Government; Cromwell as Lord Protector, royalist plots and offer of the throne’
Introduction
The Instrument of Government (1653) and Oliver Cromwell’s tenure as Lord Protector represented a bold constitutional experiment, highlighting republican ambition, personal authority, and persistent instability within mid-seventeenth-century England.
The Instrument of Government
Origins and Purpose
The Instrument of Government was drafted in December 1653 by Major-General John Lambert and colleagues after the failure of the Nominated Assembly (Barebones Parliament). It was the first written constitution in English history. Its purpose was to provide a stable political framework for the new Protectorate following years of upheaval during and after the Civil Wars.
Provided a constitutional basis for governance.
Aimed to balance executive, legislative, and military authority.
Sought to prevent the dominance of any one individual or institution.
Instrument of Government: England’s first written constitution (1653), establishing the Protectorate under Cromwell, with provisions for executive, parliamentary, and religious authority.
Key Provisions
The Instrument of Government established three principal organs of state:
The Lord Protector: Held office for life, with wide executive powers, including control of foreign policy, war, and administration.
The Council of State: A permanent body of 13–21 members to advise the Protector and act as a check on his authority.
Parliament: A single-chamber legislature, elected every three years, with members from England, Scotland, and Ireland, marking an important step toward a united Britain.
Other provisions included:
Guaranteed liberty of worship for most Protestants (excluding Catholics and radical sects).
Regular parliamentary sessions mandated, lasting at least five months.
Provision of adequate taxation to maintain army and navy at 30,000 men.
This constitutional framework reflected an attempt to institutionalise the Revolution and move away from arbitrary rule, while embedding the military’s role in governance.
Cromwell as Lord Protector
Cromwell’s Position
Oliver Cromwell accepted the role of Lord Protector reluctantly in December 1653, presenting himself as a servant of God’s will rather than a monarch.
Portrait of Oliver Cromwell attributed to Robert Walker, showing him in armour — a visual cue to his military roots and the Protectorate’s reliance on the army. Source
He sought to balance his role as head of state with Puritan ideals of godly reformation.
Retained command of the army.
Exercised significant personal influence over Council and Parliament.
Saw his role as divinely ordained, a “constable to God’s people.”
Cromwell’s authority relied heavily on the army’s support, making his position both powerful and precarious.
Parliament and Tensions
Cromwell’s relationship with Parliaments under the Instrument was fraught:
The First Protectorate Parliament (1654–55) quickly sought to amend the Instrument, challenging the Council’s authority and questioning Cromwell’s powers.
Cromwell dissolved it after five months, frustrated by resistance to reform.
The Second Protectorate Parliament (1656–58) was initially hand-picked (members excluded by army officers), producing greater cooperation. Yet divisions emerged, particularly over religious toleration and proposals to make Cromwell king.
These conflicts revealed that despite the constitutional framework, the balance of power between Protector, Council, and Parliament remained unresolved.
Religious Settlement under the Protectorate
Cromwell saw himself as a godly ruler, and religion remained central to his governance:
Supported broad Protestant toleration, allowing sects such as Independents, Baptists, and Quakers some freedom.
Continued to exclude Catholics and persecuted those deemed a threat to political stability.
Appointed Triers and Ejectors commissions to oversee the moral and spiritual quality of ministers.
This approach reflected Cromwell’s vision of a godly nation, though it alienated both traditional Anglicans and more radical Puritans.
Royalist Plots
Despite the Protectorate, royalist conspiracies persisted, seeking to restore the Stuart monarchy:
Plots such as the Sealed Knot and Penruddock’s Rising (1655) highlighted ongoing threats.
Colonel John Penruddock (1619–1655), a royalist conspirator executed after leading the 1655 uprising. The portrait illustrates the human agents behind the continued royalist threat to the Protectorate. Source
Royalists drew support from disaffected Presbyterians, Catholics, and gentry opposed to the military regime.
These threats justified Cromwell’s continued reliance on the army and later introduction of the Major Generals to secure the counties.
Royalist resistance underscored the fragility of Cromwell’s settlement and the limits of the Instrument’s effectiveness in creating stability.
The Offer of the Throne
One of the most controversial moments of Cromwell’s rule came with the Humble Petition and Advice (1657):
Title page of The Humble Petition and Advice (1657), the constitutional settlement that offered Cromwell the crown and adjusted the Protectorate’s structure. This page shows the formal title and printers, directly linking to the episode in the notes. Source
Parliament, frustrated with constitutional uncertainty, offered Cromwell the crown.
Supporters believed a monarchy would restore traditional stability, legitimacy, and hierarchy.
Cromwell refused the title of king, citing his allegiance to the republican cause and fear of alienating the army, though he accepted greater powers under the new settlement.
Humble Petition and Advice: A revised constitutional proposal (1657) offering Cromwell the crown; although he declined, it granted him expanded authority and succession provisions.
The episode revealed deep divisions within the Protectorate over the nature of sovereignty and governance.
Legacy of the Instrument and Protectorate
The Instrument of Government and Cromwell’s Protectorate embodied both innovation and contradiction. While it was England’s first written constitution, it failed to resolve key tensions:
Executive power vs parliamentary sovereignty.
Military influence vs civilian authority.
Republican ideals vs traditional monarchy.
Although the Protectorate provided temporary stability, these unresolved tensions contributed to renewed instability after Cromwell’s death in 1658, paving the way for the collapse of the republican experiment.
FAQ
John Lambert, a senior army officer, was the principal architect of the Instrument of Government in 1653. He sought to formalise military and republican ideals in a constitutional framework.
Lambert emphasised a balanced system, limiting Parliament’s dominance and protecting the army’s role in governance. His draft reflected the army’s desire for stability after years of political failure, particularly following the collapse of the Barebones Parliament.
The constitution extended representation to Scotland and Ireland in the new single-chamber Parliament.
Scotland received 30 seats.
Ireland received 30 seats.
England retained the majority of representation.
This was a significant step towards a “United Commonwealth,” though in practice, military control over Scotland and Ireland meant their voices carried limited weight.
Opposition stemmed from concerns about:
Military dominance: The army’s entrenched power through the Protector and Council.
Religious policy: Fear of excessive toleration undermining uniformity.
Limits on parliamentary sovereignty: Parliament could not alter the constitution without the Protector and Council’s consent.
These objections highlighted the deep mistrust between civilian politicians and the Protectorate regime.
While Cromwell rejected the crown, he accepted amendments that altered his powers:
Creation of a second parliamentary chamber, resembling the House of Lords.
Expanded authority for Cromwell, including naming his successor.
Greater financial control for Parliament.
The Humble Petition reflected a move back towards traditional constitutional forms, contrasting with the more revolutionary tone of the Instrument.
Royalist pamphlets and ballads depicted Cromwell as a tyrant and hypocrite, accusing him of betraying republican ideals.
He was often compared to a monarch, with titles like “King Oliver” used to mock his authority. Such propaganda aimed to undermine his legitimacy and present the Protectorate as little different from the monarchy it replaced.
These portrayals reinforced royalist efforts to rally support for Charles Stuart abroad and discredit Cromwell’s rule at home.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the Instrument of Government (1653), and why was it significant?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying what the Instrument of Government was (e.g., England’s first written constitution / established the Protectorate under Cromwell).
1 mark for explaining its significance (e.g., provided a framework for republican government / aimed to balance power between Protector, Council, and Parliament).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two challenges faced by Cromwell as Lord Protector between 1653 and 1658.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 3 marks per challenge:
1 mark for identifying a relevant challenge.
1 mark for describing the nature of the challenge.
1 mark for explaining why it was significant or problematic for Cromwell’s Protectorate.
Examples may include:
Conflict with Parliament: Cromwell dissolved the First Protectorate Parliament in 1655 after it attempted to amend the Instrument, showing unresolved tension between executive and legislative authority.
Religious divisions: Although Cromwell promoted broad Protestant toleration, opposition from both traditional Anglicans and radical sects weakened consensus and stability.
Royalist plots: Rising such as Penruddock’s (1655) demonstrated ongoing threats to the regime and necessitated military control through the Major Generals.
Offer of the crown (1657): The Humble Petition and Advice created division, with Cromwell’s refusal highlighting unresolved debates over monarchy versus republican government.
