AP Syllabus focus:
‘Developing countries often have higher infant mortality rates and more children in the workforce than developed countries.’
Developed and developing countries differ in population health, education, and economic structure. These differences shape key demographic indicators—especially infant mortality and child workforce participation—and affect how environmental pressures and resource needs play out.
Core characteristics emphasised by the syllabus
Infant mortality patterns
Developing countries typically have higher infant mortality rates than developed countries because basic survival conditions are less consistently met.
This time-series chart shows the long-run decline in child mortality (the share of children who die before roughly age 15), contrasting very high historical levels with much lower modern levels. It also highlights that today’s lowest mortality rates are concentrated in high-income countries—reinforcing the general pattern that stronger health systems and infrastructure are associated with lower early-life mortality. Source
Infant mortality rate (IMR): The number of deaths of infants under age 1 per 1,000 live births in a given year.
Higher IMR is commonly linked to:
Limited access to prenatal care and skilled birth attendance
Higher prevalence of infectious disease (e.g., diarrhoeal disease from unsafe water)
Malnutrition and food insecurity for pregnant people and infants
Inadequate sanitation infrastructure and indoor air pollution exposure
Delayed treatment due to cost, distance, or understaffed clinics
In developed countries, IMR is generally lower due to stronger healthcare systems, safer water supplies, better maternal nutrition, and wider vaccine coverage, though disparities can persist within countries.
Children in the workforce
Developing countries often have more children in the workforce than developed countries, reflecting household economic needs and limited access to schooling.
Child labour (child workforce participation): Employment or work by minors that is economically driven and may interfere with education, health, or development.
Key drivers include:
Household reliance on children’s income or unpaid labour (agriculture, family businesses)
Limited availability, cost, or quality of education
Informal labour markets with weaker enforcement of workplace protections
Cultural expectations around contributing to family livelihoods
In developed countries, child labour is comparatively rare because:
Compulsory education laws are more enforceable
Social safety nets reduce economic necessity
Labour regulations and monitoring are stronger
How these traits connect to environmental science
Environmental conditions can reinforce the two syllabus-highlighted characteristics:
Unsafe drinking water, poor sanitation, and pollution increase disease risk, raising IMR.
Environmental shocks (drought, floods) can reduce harvests and income, increasing the likelihood that children enter the workforce to stabilise households.
Children working in agriculture, mining, or waste picking may face higher exposures to:
Pesticides and fertilisers (dermal and inhalation exposure)
Contaminated water and soil (heavy metals, pathogens)
Air pollution (burning biomass, dust, industrial emissions)
These exposures can contribute to illness, missed schooling, and long-term reductions in community capacity to manage environmental problems.
Common indicators used to distinguish “developing” vs “developed”
The labels are broad and imperfect, but AP Environmental Science often uses them as shorthand for patterns seen across multiple indicators.
Developed country: A country with high average income and stronger health, education, and infrastructure outcomes (often reflected in lower IMR and higher life expectancy).
Frequently associated indicators (not universal) include:
Developing countries
Higher IMR
Higher poverty rates and larger informal economies
Greater reliance on primary economic sectors (subsistence agriculture, resource extraction)
Lower average access to clean water, sanitation, and healthcare services
Higher rates of child workforce participation
Developed countries
Lower IMR
Higher average educational attainment and health access
Greater reliance on secondary/tertiary sectors (manufacturing, services)
More extensive infrastructure (water treatment, sewage, electricity)
Lower rates of child workforce participation
Important nuances for interpretation
“Developing” and “developed” describe averages; large differences can exist within a single country (urban vs rural, wealthy vs poor neighbourhoods).
A country can reduce IMR rapidly through targeted public health interventions (clean water, vaccination, maternal care) even if income growth is slower.
Child workforce participation can be underestimated where work is informal, seasonal, or unpaid within households.
Environmental burdens can be exported: developed countries may consume goods produced with pollution and labour risks located in developing countries, complicating simple comparisons.
FAQ
They often use composite measures (income per capita plus health/education outcomes). Some avoid the terms and use “low-, middle-, high-income” groupings instead.
Low-cost interventions can have big effects: clean water access, oral rehydration therapy, vaccination programmes, mosquito control, and improved maternal care.
Often informal and family-based: small-scale farming, herding, domestic work, street vending, small workshops, mining, and waste picking.
Crop failure or destroyed livelihoods can push households to use child labour as a coping strategy, especially where insurance, savings, and social support are limited.
National averages can mask large gaps by region and income; an area with poor water and healthcare can have IMR patterns unlike the national mean.
Practice Questions
State two characteristics that are more common in developing countries than in developed countries, as described in the syllabus. (2 marks)
1 mark: Higher infant mortality rate.
1 mark: More children in the workforce / higher child labour participation.
Explain how limited access to infrastructure and services in developing countries can contribute to (i) higher infant mortality rates and (ii) a higher proportion of children in the workforce. (6 marks)
Up to 3 marks for (i), e.g.:
Limited access to healthcare/prenatal care increases birth complications and infant deaths (1).
Unsafe water/poor sanitation increases infectious disease/diarrhoeal illness in infants (1).
Malnutrition/food insecurity weakens infant health and survival (1).
Up to 3 marks for (ii), e.g.:
Poverty/income insecurity increases household need for children’s earnings or labour (1).
Limited/expensive schooling reduces attendance, enabling workforce entry (1).
Informal labour markets/weak enforcement of labour laws allows child labour (1).
