1. The Living World: Ecosystems1.1 Introduction to Ecosystems0/01.1.1 Resources and Species Interactions1.1.2 Predator–Prey Relationships1.1.3 Symbiosis: Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism1.1.4 Competition and Resource Partitioning1.2 Terrestrial Biomes0/01.2.1 What Is a Biome?1.2.2 Major Terrestrial Biomes Overview1.2.3 Why Resources Vary Across Land Biomes1.2.4 Biomes Are Dynamic: Shifts Over Time1.3 Aquatic Biomes0/01.3.1 Freshwater Biomes and Their Importance1.3.2 Marine Biomes and Global Services1.3.3 Factors Controlling Marine Resource Distribution1.4 The Carbon Cycle0/01.4.1 Carbon Cycle Basics: Sources and Sinks1.4.2 Carbon Reservoirs: Short-Term vs Long-Term Storage1.4.3 Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration in the Carbon Cycle1.4.4 Decomposition, Fossil Fuels, and Atmospheric CO₂1.5 The Nitrogen Cycle0/01.5.1 Nitrogen Cycle Basics: Sources and Sinks1.5.2 Nitrogen Reservoirs and Typical Storage Time1.5.3 Nitrogen Fixation and Plant Uptake1.5.4 The Atmosphere as the Main Nitrogen Reservoir1.6 The Phosphorus Cycle0/01.6.1 Phosphorus Cycle Basics: Sources and Sinks1.6.2 Major Phosphorus Reservoirs: Rocks and Sediments1.6.3 No Atmospheric Phase and Phosphorus Limitation1.7 The Hydrologic (Water) Cycle0/01.7.1 Hydrologic Cycle Processes and States of Water1.7.2 Water Reservoirs: Ocean, Ice, and Groundwater1.8 Primary Productivity0/01.8.1 Primary Productivity and Photosynthesis Rate1.8.2 Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)1.8.3 Net Primary Productivity (NPP)1.8.4 Measuring Productivity (Units and Meaning)1.8.5 Light Penetration and Aquatic Photosynthesis1.9 Trophic Levels0/01.9.1 Why Ecosystems Need Energy Input1.9.2 Matter Cycles and Conservation of Matter1.9.3 Energy Flow Through Trophic Levels1.10 Energy Flow and the 10% Rule0/01.10.1 The 10% Rule and Energy Transfer Efficiency1.10.2 Thermodynamics and Energy Loss in Ecosystems1.11 Food Chains and Food Webs0/01.11.1 Food Chains vs Food Webs1.11.2 Feedback Loops in Food Webs1.11.3 Species Additions and Removals: Trophic Cascades1. The Living World: Ecosystems1.1 Introduction to Ecosystems0/01.1.1 Resources and Species Interactions1.1.2 Predator–Prey Relationships1.1.3 Symbiosis: Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism1.1.4 Competition and Resource Partitioning1.2 Terrestrial Biomes0/01.2.1 What Is a Biome?1.2.2 Major Terrestrial Biomes Overview1.2.3 Why Resources Vary Across Land Biomes1.2.4 Biomes Are Dynamic: Shifts Over Time1.3 Aquatic Biomes0/01.3.1 Freshwater Biomes and Their Importance1.3.2 Marine Biomes and Global Services1.3.3 Factors Controlling Marine Resource Distribution1.4 The Carbon Cycle0/01.4.1 Carbon Cycle Basics: Sources and Sinks1.4.2 Carbon Reservoirs: Short-Term vs Long-Term Storage1.4.3 Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration in the Carbon Cycle1.4.4 Decomposition, Fossil Fuels, and Atmospheric CO₂1.5 The Nitrogen Cycle0/01.5.1 Nitrogen Cycle Basics: Sources and Sinks1.5.2 Nitrogen Reservoirs and Typical Storage Time1.5.3 Nitrogen Fixation and Plant Uptake1.5.4 The Atmosphere as the Main Nitrogen Reservoir1.6 The Phosphorus Cycle0/01.6.1 Phosphorus Cycle Basics: Sources and Sinks1.6.2 Major Phosphorus Reservoirs: Rocks and Sediments1.6.3 No Atmospheric Phase and Phosphorus Limitation1.7 The Hydrologic (Water) Cycle0/01.7.1 Hydrologic Cycle Processes and States of Water1.7.2 Water Reservoirs: Ocean, Ice, and Groundwater1.8 Primary Productivity0/01.8.1 Primary Productivity and Photosynthesis Rate1.8.2 Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)1.8.3 Net Primary Productivity (NPP)1.8.4 Measuring Productivity (Units and Meaning)1.8.5 Light Penetration and Aquatic Photosynthesis1.9 Trophic Levels0/01.9.1 Why Ecosystems Need Energy Input1.9.2 Matter Cycles and Conservation of Matter1.9.3 Energy Flow Through Trophic Levels1.10 Energy Flow and the 10% Rule0/01.10.1 The 10% Rule and Energy Transfer Efficiency1.10.2 Thermodynamics and Energy Loss in Ecosystems1.11 Food Chains and Food Webs0/01.11.1 Food Chains vs Food Webs1.11.2 Feedback Loops in Food Webs1.11.3 Species Additions and Removals: Trophic Cascades2. The Living World: Biodiversity2.1 Introduction to Biodiversity0/02.1.1 Levels of biodiversity: genetic, species, and habitat2.1.2 Why genetic diversity matters and what bottlenecks do2.1.3 Species diversity and recovery after disruptions2.1.4 How habitat loss reshapes communities2.1.5 Species richness as a biodiversity measure2.2 Ecosystem Services0/02.2.1 The four categories of ecosystem services2.2.2 Examples of services ecosystems provide2.2.3 How human activities disrupt ecosystem services2.3 Island Biogeography0/02.3.1 What island biogeography studies2.3.2 Immigration and colonization of islands2.3.3 Specialists, generalists, and limited resources on islands2.3.4 Invasive species and competition on islands2.4 Ecological Tolerance0/02.4.1 Defining ecological tolerance2.4.2 Tolerance limits for key abiotic factors2.4.3 Tolerance at individual vs species level2.5 Natural Disruptions to Ecosystems0/02.5.1 Natural disruptions and their impacts on ecosystems2.5.2 Short- and long-term disruptions across time scales2.5.3 Earth’s climate change over geological time2.5.4 Sea-level change and glacial ice2.5.5 Habitat change after major environmental upheaval2.5.6 Wildlife migration as a response to disruption2.6 Adaptations0/02.6.1 How adaptations develop over time2.6.2 Species responses when environments change2.7 Ecological Succession0/02.7.1 Primary vs secondary succession2.7.2 Keystone species and community structure2.7.3 Indicator species as ecosystem signals2.7.4 Pioneer species and early succession2.7.5 How succession changes ecosystem properties over time2. The Living World: Biodiversity2.1 Introduction to Biodiversity0/02.1.1 Levels of biodiversity: genetic, species, and habitat2.1.2 Why genetic diversity matters and what bottlenecks do2.1.3 Species diversity and recovery after disruptions2.1.4 How habitat loss reshapes communities2.1.5 Species richness as a biodiversity measure2.2 Ecosystem Services0/02.2.1 The four categories of ecosystem services2.2.2 Examples of services ecosystems provide2.2.3 How human activities disrupt ecosystem services2.3 Island Biogeography0/02.3.1 What island biogeography studies2.3.2 Immigration and colonization of islands2.3.3 Specialists, generalists, and limited resources on islands2.3.4 Invasive species and competition on islands2.4 Ecological Tolerance0/02.4.1 Defining ecological tolerance2.4.2 Tolerance limits for key abiotic factors2.4.3 Tolerance at individual vs species level2.5 Natural Disruptions to Ecosystems0/02.5.1 Natural disruptions and their impacts on ecosystems2.5.2 Short- and long-term disruptions across time scales2.5.3 Earth’s climate change over geological time2.5.4 Sea-level change and glacial ice2.5.5 Habitat change after major environmental upheaval2.5.6 Wildlife migration as a response to disruption2.6 Adaptations0/02.6.1 How adaptations develop over time2.6.2 Species responses when environments change2.7 Ecological Succession0/02.7.1 Primary vs secondary succession2.7.2 Keystone species and community structure2.7.3 Indicator species as ecosystem signals2.7.4 Pioneer species and early succession2.7.5 How succession changes ecosystem properties over time3. Populations3.1 Generalist and Specialist Species0/03.1.1 Generalists vs. specialists: core differences3.1.2 Habitat stability and species success3.2 K-Selected r-Selected Species0/03.2.1 K-selected species: traits and trade-offs3.2.2 r-selected species: traits and trade-offs3.2.3 Biotic potential and maximum reproductive rate3.2.4 Reproductive strategies as a continuum3.2.5 Invasive species and vulnerability3.3 Survivorship Curves0/03.3.1 What a survivorship curve shows3.3.2 Type I, II, and III survivorship patterns3.3.3 Linking survivorship to r/K strategies3.4 Carrying Capacity0/03.4.1 Carrying capacity (K) and population limits3.4.2 Overshoot and environmental impacts3.4.3 Dieback after overshoot: causes and outcomes3.5 Population Growth and Resource Availability0/03.5.1 Limiting factors: resources and space3.5.2 Finite resource bases across time scales3.5.3 Resource abundance and accelerating growth3.5.4 Resource decline, inequality, and falling growth3.6 Age Structure Diagrams0/03.6.1 Interpreting growth rates from age structure3.6.2 Rapid growth vs. stable or declining populations3.7 Total Fertility Rate0/03.7.1 What affects total fertility rate (TFR)?3.7.2 Replacement-level fertility and population stability3.7.3 Infant mortality rates and contributing factors3.8 Human Population Dynamics0/03.8.1 Drivers of human population growth and decline3.8.2 Limits to global population: carrying capacity and Malthus3.8.3 Density-independent vs. density-dependent factors3.8.4 Rule of 70 and doubling time calculations3.9 Demographic Transition0/03.9.1 Defining the demographic transition3.9.2 The four-stage demographic transition model (DTM)3.9.3 Developing vs. developed country characteristics3. Populations3.1 Generalist and Specialist Species0/03.1.1 Generalists vs. specialists: core differences3.1.2 Habitat stability and species success3.2 K-Selected r-Selected Species0/03.2.1 K-selected species: traits and trade-offs3.2.2 r-selected species: traits and trade-offs3.2.3 Biotic potential and maximum reproductive rate3.2.4 Reproductive strategies as a continuum3.2.5 Invasive species and vulnerability3.3 Survivorship Curves0/03.3.1 What a survivorship curve shows3.3.2 Type I, II, and III survivorship patterns3.3.3 Linking survivorship to r/K strategies3.4 Carrying Capacity0/03.4.1 Carrying capacity (K) and population limits3.4.2 Overshoot and environmental impacts3.4.3 Dieback after overshoot: causes and outcomes3.5 Population Growth and Resource Availability0/03.5.1 Limiting factors: resources and space3.5.2 Finite resource bases across time scales3.5.3 Resource abundance and accelerating growth3.5.4 Resource decline, inequality, and falling growth3.6 Age Structure Diagrams0/03.6.1 Interpreting growth rates from age structure3.6.2 Rapid growth vs. stable or declining populations3.7 Total Fertility Rate0/03.7.1 What affects total fertility rate (TFR)?3.7.2 Replacement-level fertility and population stability3.7.3 Infant mortality rates and contributing factors3.8 Human Population Dynamics0/03.8.1 Drivers of human population growth and decline3.8.2 Limits to global population: carrying capacity and Malthus3.8.3 Density-independent vs. density-dependent factors3.8.4 Rule of 70 and doubling time calculations3.9 Demographic Transition0/03.9.1 Defining the demographic transition3.9.2 The four-stage demographic transition model (DTM)3.9.3 Developing vs. developed country characteristics4. Earth Systems and Resources4.1 Plate Tectonics0/04.1.1 Convergent Plate Boundaries: Features and Hazards4.1.2 Divergent Plate Boundaries: Seafloor Spreading and Rift Valleys4.1.3 Transform Plate Boundaries: Fault Motion and Earthquakes4.1.4 Using Global Maps to Locate Plate-Boundary Activity4.1.5 How Earthquakes Happen: Stress, Locked Faults, and Energy Release4.2 Soil Formation and Erosion0/04.2.1 Soil Formation: Weathering of Parent Material4.2.2 Transport and Deposition: Building Soil Over Time4.2.3 Soil Horizons: Layers, Composition, and Organic Matter4.2.4 Soil Erosion and Why Soil Conservation Protects Water Quality4.3 Soil Composition and Properties0/04.3.1 Water Holding Capacity and Soil Fertility4.3.2 Particle Size, Horizons, and Soil Porosity/Permeability4.3.3 Testing Soil Properties: Chemical, Physical, and Biological Methods4.3.4 Reading a Soil Texture Triangle (Sand–Silt–Clay)4.4 Earth’s Atmosphere0/04.4.1 Major Atmospheric Gases and Their Relative Abundance4.4.2 Layers of the Atmosphere and Temperature Gradients4.5 Global Wind Patterns0/04.5.1 Uneven Solar Heating: Why the Equator Drives Circulation4.5.2 Density Differences and Convection: Moving Air From High to Low Pressure4.5.3 The Coriolis Effect and the Direction of Prevailing Winds4.6 Watersheds0/04.6.1 Defining a Watershed: Area, Length, and Slope4.6.2 How Soil and Vegetation Shape Watershed Behavior4.6.3 Watershed Divides: Boundaries Between Neighboring Drainage Basins4.7 Solar Radiation and Earth’s Seasons0/04.7.1 Insolation: Earth’s Main Energy Source (Latitude and Season)4.7.2 Sun Angle and Intensity: Why Direct Rays Heat More4.7.3 Equator to Poles: The Global Pattern of Solar Energy4.7.4 Seasonal Day Length and Solar Input at a Location4.7.5 Earth’s Axial Tilt: The Cause of Seasons and Daylight Hours4.8 Earth’s Geography and Climate0/04.8.1 How Mountains and Oceans Shape Weather and Climate4.8.2 Rain Shadows: Why Leeward Sides of Mountains Are Drier4.9 El Niño and La Niña0/04.9.1 ENSO Basics: Pacific Ocean Surface Temperatures4.9.2 Global Impacts of ENSO on Rainfall, Winds, and Ocean Circulation4.9.3 Why Impacts Differ by Region: Geography and Geology Effects4. Earth Systems and Resources4.1 Plate Tectonics0/04.1.1 Convergent Plate Boundaries: Features and Hazards4.1.2 Divergent Plate Boundaries: Seafloor Spreading and Rift Valleys4.1.3 Transform Plate Boundaries: Fault Motion and Earthquakes4.1.4 Using Global Maps to Locate Plate-Boundary Activity4.1.5 How Earthquakes Happen: Stress, Locked Faults, and Energy Release4.2 Soil Formation and Erosion0/04.2.1 Soil Formation: Weathering of Parent Material4.2.2 Transport and Deposition: Building Soil Over Time4.2.3 Soil Horizons: Layers, Composition, and Organic Matter4.2.4 Soil Erosion and Why Soil Conservation Protects Water Quality4.3 Soil Composition and Properties0/04.3.1 Water Holding Capacity and Soil Fertility4.3.2 Particle Size, Horizons, and Soil Porosity/Permeability4.3.3 Testing Soil Properties: Chemical, Physical, and Biological Methods4.3.4 Reading a Soil Texture Triangle (Sand–Silt–Clay)4.4 Earth’s Atmosphere0/04.4.1 Major Atmospheric Gases and Their Relative Abundance4.4.2 Layers of the Atmosphere and Temperature Gradients4.5 Global Wind Patterns0/04.5.1 Uneven Solar Heating: Why the Equator Drives Circulation4.5.2 Density Differences and Convection: Moving Air From High to Low Pressure4.5.3 The Coriolis Effect and the Direction of Prevailing Winds4.6 Watersheds0/04.6.1 Defining a Watershed: Area, Length, and Slope4.6.2 How Soil and Vegetation Shape Watershed Behavior4.6.3 Watershed Divides: Boundaries Between Neighboring Drainage Basins4.7 Solar Radiation and Earth’s Seasons0/04.7.1 Insolation: Earth’s Main Energy Source (Latitude and Season)4.7.2 Sun Angle and Intensity: Why Direct Rays Heat More4.7.3 Equator to Poles: The Global Pattern of Solar Energy4.7.4 Seasonal Day Length and Solar Input at a Location4.7.5 Earth’s Axial Tilt: The Cause of Seasons and Daylight Hours4.8 Earth’s Geography and Climate0/04.8.1 How Mountains and Oceans Shape Weather and Climate4.8.2 Rain Shadows: Why Leeward Sides of Mountains Are Drier4.9 El Niño and La Niña0/04.9.1 ENSO Basics: Pacific Ocean Surface Temperatures4.9.2 Global Impacts of ENSO on Rainfall, Winds, and Ocean Circulation4.9.3 Why Impacts Differ by Region: Geography and Geology Effects5. Land and Water Use5.1 The Tragedy of the Commons0/05.1.1 Understanding the Tragedy of the Commons5.1.2 Preventing Resource Depletion in Common-Pool Systems5.2 Clearcutting0/05.2.1 Clearcutting: Economic Benefits and Local Environmental Impacts5.2.2 Forests, Carbon Storage, and Climate Change5.2.3 Alternatives and Mitigation Strategies for Forest Harvest5.3 The Green Revolution0/05.3.1 What Changed During the Green Revolution?5.3.2 Mechanization: Efficiency vs. Fossil Fuel Dependence5.3.3 Weighing Trade-Offs in Modern Agriculture5.4 Impact of Agricultural Practices0/05.4.1 Tilling and Soil Degradation5.4.2 Slash-and-Burn Farming and Land Impacts5.4.3 Fertilizers and Water Pollution5.5 Irrigation Methods0/05.5.1 Why Irrigation Matters5.5.2 Major Types of Irrigation5.5.3 Flood Irrigation: Benefits and Drawbacks5.5.4 Furrow Irrigation: Benefits and Drawbacks5.5.5 Spray Irrigation: Efficiency, Cost, and Energy Use5.5.6 Drip Irrigation: Highest Efficiency, Higher Cost5.5.7 Waterlogging, Salinization, and Aquifer Depletion5.6 Pest Control Methods0/05.6.1 Chemical Pest Control and Resistance5.6.2 Genetically Engineered Crops for Pest Resistance5.6.3 Reducing Overreliance on Single Control Methods5.7 Meat Production Methods0/05.7.1 Comparing CAFOs and Free-Range Grazing5.7.2 Why Meat Production Uses More Land5.7.3 CAFOs: Speed, Cost, and Waste Issues5.7.4 Free-Range Grazing: Benefits and Trade-Offs5.7.5 Overgrazing, Erosion, and Desertification5.7.6 How Eating Less Meat Can Reduce Impacts5.8 Impacts of Overfishing0/05.8.1 What Overfishing Does to Fish Populations5.8.2 Ecosystem Consequences of Fish Scarcity5.8.3 Human Dependence and Solutions5.9 Impacts of Mining0/05.9.1 Lower-Grade Ores and Rising Impacts5.9.2 Surface Mining and Strip Mining5.9.3 Slag, Tailings, and Other Mining Wastes5.9.4 Benefits vs. Environmental Costs of Mining5.9.5 Coal Mining: Pollution and Greenhouse Gases5.9.6 Why Subsurface Mining Expands and Its Costs5.10 Impacts of Urbanization0/05.10.1 Resource Depletion and Saltwater Intrusion5.10.2 Urbanization and the Carbon Cycle5.10.3 Impervious Surfaces and Flooding5.10.4 Urban Sprawl and Environmental Problems5.11 Ecological Footprints0/05.11.1 What an Ecological Footprint Measures5.11.2 Interpreting Footprint Data5.11.3 Reducing a Footprint5.12 Introduction to Sustainability0/05.12.1 Defining Sustainability5.12.2 Indicators that Track Progress Toward Sustainability5.12.3 Sustainable Yield5.13 Methods to Reduce Urban Runoff0/05.13.1 Permeable Pavement5.13.2 Planting Trees and Increasing Infiltration5.13.3 Transportation and Development Choices5.13.4 Putting Strategies Together5.14 Integrated Pest Management0/05.14.1 What IPM Is5.14.2 IPM Tools and Techniques5.14.3 Benefits of IPM5.14.4 Drawbacks of IPM5.15 Sustainable Agriculture0/05.15.1 Soil Conservation: The Goal5.15.2 Soil Conservation Methods (Field Shape and Cover)5.15.3 Soil Conservation Methods (Reduced Disturbance)5.15.4 Improving Soil Fertility5.15.5 Rotational Grazing5.16 Aquaculture0/05.16.1 Why Aquaculture Is Growing5.16.2 Water Pollution, Escapes, and Disease5.16.3 Reducing Aquaculture Impacts5.17 Sustainable Forestry0/05.17.1 Reducing Deforestation5.17.2 Managing Pathogens and Insects5.17.3 Prescribed Burns5. Land and Water Use5.1 The Tragedy of the Commons0/05.1.1 Understanding the Tragedy of the Commons5.1.2 Preventing Resource Depletion in Common-Pool Systems5.2 Clearcutting0/05.2.1 Clearcutting: Economic Benefits and Local Environmental Impacts5.2.2 Forests, Carbon Storage, and Climate Change5.2.3 Alternatives and Mitigation Strategies for Forest Harvest5.3 The Green Revolution0/05.3.1 What Changed During the Green Revolution?5.3.2 Mechanization: Efficiency vs. Fossil Fuel Dependence5.3.3 Weighing Trade-Offs in Modern Agriculture5.4 Impact of Agricultural Practices0/05.4.1 Tilling and Soil Degradation5.4.2 Slash-and-Burn Farming and Land Impacts5.4.3 Fertilizers and Water Pollution5.5 Irrigation Methods0/05.5.1 Why Irrigation Matters5.5.2 Major Types of Irrigation5.5.3 Flood Irrigation: Benefits and Drawbacks5.5.4 Furrow Irrigation: Benefits and Drawbacks5.5.5 Spray Irrigation: Efficiency, Cost, and Energy Use5.5.6 Drip Irrigation: Highest Efficiency, Higher Cost5.5.7 Waterlogging, Salinization, and Aquifer Depletion5.6 Pest Control Methods0/05.6.1 Chemical Pest Control and Resistance5.6.2 Genetically Engineered Crops for Pest Resistance5.6.3 Reducing Overreliance on Single Control Methods5.7 Meat Production Methods0/05.7.1 Comparing CAFOs and Free-Range Grazing5.7.2 Why Meat Production Uses More Land5.7.3 CAFOs: Speed, Cost, and Waste Issues5.7.4 Free-Range Grazing: Benefits and Trade-Offs5.7.5 Overgrazing, Erosion, and Desertification5.7.6 How Eating Less Meat Can Reduce Impacts5.8 Impacts of Overfishing0/05.8.1 What Overfishing Does to Fish Populations5.8.2 Ecosystem Consequences of Fish Scarcity5.8.3 Human Dependence and Solutions5.9 Impacts of Mining0/05.9.1 Lower-Grade Ores and Rising Impacts5.9.2 Surface Mining and Strip Mining5.9.3 Slag, Tailings, and Other Mining Wastes5.9.4 Benefits vs. Environmental Costs of Mining5.9.5 Coal Mining: Pollution and Greenhouse Gases5.9.6 Why Subsurface Mining Expands and Its Costs5.10 Impacts of Urbanization0/05.10.1 Resource Depletion and Saltwater Intrusion5.10.2 Urbanization and the Carbon Cycle5.10.3 Impervious Surfaces and Flooding5.10.4 Urban Sprawl and Environmental Problems5.11 Ecological Footprints0/05.11.1 What an Ecological Footprint Measures5.11.2 Interpreting Footprint Data5.11.3 Reducing a Footprint5.12 Introduction to Sustainability0/05.12.1 Defining Sustainability5.12.2 Indicators that Track Progress Toward Sustainability5.12.3 Sustainable Yield5.13 Methods to Reduce Urban Runoff0/05.13.1 Permeable Pavement5.13.2 Planting Trees and Increasing Infiltration5.13.3 Transportation and Development Choices5.13.4 Putting Strategies Together5.14 Integrated Pest Management0/05.14.1 What IPM Is5.14.2 IPM Tools and Techniques5.14.3 Benefits of IPM5.14.4 Drawbacks of IPM5.15 Sustainable Agriculture0/05.15.1 Soil Conservation: The Goal5.15.2 Soil Conservation Methods (Field Shape and Cover)5.15.3 Soil Conservation Methods (Reduced Disturbance)5.15.4 Improving Soil Fertility5.15.5 Rotational Grazing5.16 Aquaculture0/05.16.1 Why Aquaculture Is Growing5.16.2 Water Pollution, Escapes, and Disease5.16.3 Reducing Aquaculture Impacts5.17 Sustainable Forestry0/05.17.1 Reducing Deforestation5.17.2 Managing Pathogens and Insects5.17.3 Prescribed Burns6. Energy Resources and Consumption6.1 Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources0/06.1.1 What Makes an Energy Source Nonrenewable?6.1.2 What Makes an Energy Source Renewable?6.2 Global Energy Consumption0/06.2.1 Energy Use in Developed vs. Developing Countries6.2.2 Why Fossil Fuels Dominate Global Energy Use6.2.3 Industrialization and Rising Energy Demand6.2.4 What Drives Energy Choices?6.3 Fuel Types and Uses0/06.3.1 Wood and Charcoal as Traditional Fuels6.3.2 Peat: Partially Decomposed Organic Fuel6.3.3 Coal Types and How Coal Forms6.3.4 Natural Gas and Methane6.3.5 Crude Oil, Tar Sands, and Bitumen6.3.6 Refined Fuels and Specialized Uses6.3.7 Cogeneration (Combined Heat and Power)6.4 Distribution of Natural Energy Resources0/06.4.1 Why Energy Resources Are Unevenly Distributed6.4.2 Reading Resource Maps: Examples and Patterns6.5 Fossil Fuels0/06.5.1 Fossil Fuel Combustion: The Basic Chemistry6.5.2 How Fossil-Fuel Power Plants Generate Electricity6.5.3 How Fossil Fuels Are Extracted6.5.4 Fracking and Environmental Impacts6.6 Nuclear Power0/06.6.1 Nuclear Fission and Reactor Basics6.6.2 Radioactivity and Radiation6.6.3 Nuclear Waste and Long-Term Storage Challenges6.6.4 Environmental Trade-offs of Nuclear Energy6.6.5 Nuclear Accidents and Their Impacts6.6.6 Half-Life and Radioactive Decay Calculations6.7 Energy from Biomass0/06.7.1 Burning Biomass: Emissions and Deforestation6.7.2 Ethanol as a Gasoline Substitute6.8 Solar Energy0/06.8.1 Photovoltaic (PV) Solar Cells6.8.2 Active Solar Thermal Systems6.8.3 Passive Solar Design6.8.4 Environmental Impacts and Limits of Solar Power6.9 Hydroelectric Power0/06.9.1 How Hydroelectric Power Is Generated6.9.2 Tidal Energy Basics6.9.3 Environmental Impacts of Hydropower6.10 Geothermal Energy0/06.10.1 How Geothermal Power Plants Work6.10.2 Costs, Access, and Environmental Concerns6.11 Hydrogen Fuel Cell0/06.11.1 How Hydrogen Fuel Cells Produce Electricity6.11.2 Environmental Benefits and Challenges6.12 Wind Energy0/06.12.1 How Wind Turbines Generate Electricity6.12.2 Environmental Benefits and Wildlife Impacts6.13 Energy Conservation0/06.13.1 Energy Conservation at Home6.13.2 Conserving Energy Through Transportation Choices6.13.3 Community and Building-Scale Conservation6. Energy Resources and Consumption6.1 Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources0/06.1.1 What Makes an Energy Source Nonrenewable?6.1.2 What Makes an Energy Source Renewable?6.2 Global Energy Consumption0/06.2.1 Energy Use in Developed vs. Developing Countries6.2.2 Why Fossil Fuels Dominate Global Energy Use6.2.3 Industrialization and Rising Energy Demand6.2.4 What Drives Energy Choices?6.3 Fuel Types and Uses0/06.3.1 Wood and Charcoal as Traditional Fuels6.3.2 Peat: Partially Decomposed Organic Fuel6.3.3 Coal Types and How Coal Forms6.3.4 Natural Gas and Methane6.3.5 Crude Oil, Tar Sands, and Bitumen6.3.6 Refined Fuels and Specialized Uses6.3.7 Cogeneration (Combined Heat and Power)6.4 Distribution of Natural Energy Resources0/06.4.1 Why Energy Resources Are Unevenly Distributed6.4.2 Reading Resource Maps: Examples and Patterns6.5 Fossil Fuels0/06.5.1 Fossil Fuel Combustion: The Basic Chemistry6.5.2 How Fossil-Fuel Power Plants Generate Electricity6.5.3 How Fossil Fuels Are Extracted6.5.4 Fracking and Environmental Impacts6.6 Nuclear Power0/06.6.1 Nuclear Fission and Reactor Basics6.6.2 Radioactivity and Radiation6.6.3 Nuclear Waste and Long-Term Storage Challenges6.6.4 Environmental Trade-offs of Nuclear Energy6.6.5 Nuclear Accidents and Their Impacts6.6.6 Half-Life and Radioactive Decay Calculations6.7 Energy from Biomass0/06.7.1 Burning Biomass: Emissions and Deforestation6.7.2 Ethanol as a Gasoline Substitute6.8 Solar Energy0/06.8.1 Photovoltaic (PV) Solar Cells6.8.2 Active Solar Thermal Systems6.8.3 Passive Solar Design6.8.4 Environmental Impacts and Limits of Solar Power6.9 Hydroelectric Power0/06.9.1 How Hydroelectric Power Is Generated6.9.2 Tidal Energy Basics6.9.3 Environmental Impacts of Hydropower6.10 Geothermal Energy0/06.10.1 How Geothermal Power Plants Work6.10.2 Costs, Access, and Environmental Concerns6.11 Hydrogen Fuel Cell0/06.11.1 How Hydrogen Fuel Cells Produce Electricity6.11.2 Environmental Benefits and Challenges6.12 Wind Energy0/06.12.1 How Wind Turbines Generate Electricity6.12.2 Environmental Benefits and Wildlife Impacts6.13 Energy Conservation0/06.13.1 Energy Conservation at Home6.13.2 Conserving Energy Through Transportation Choices6.13.3 Community and Building-Scale Conservation7. Atmospheric Pollution7.1 Introduction to Air Pollution0/07.1.1 Coal Combustion Pollutants7.1.2 Fossil Fuels, NOx, and Secondary Pollution7.1.3 Other Fossil-Fuel Pollutants (CO, Hydrocarbons, PM)7.1.4 Sulfur Dioxide from Diesel and Air Quality7.1.5 Lead Regulation and the Clean Air Act7.1.6 Primary vs. Secondary Pollutants7.2 Photochemical Smog0/07.2.1 Formation of Photochemical Smog7.2.2 Environmental Conditions that Affect Smog Formation7.2.3 Daily and Seasonal Ozone Patterns7.2.4 VOCs: Human and Natural Sources7.2.5 Why Smog Is Common in Cities7.2.6 Health Impacts of Photochemical Smog7.2.7 Reducing Photochemical Smog7.3 Thermal Inversion0/07.3.1 What Is a Thermal Inversion?7.3.2 How Inversions Trap Pollution7.4 Atmospheric CO2 and Particulates0/07.4.1 Natural Sources of Atmospheric CO27.4.2 Natural Sources of Particulate Matter7.5 Indoor Air Pollutants0/07.5.1 Categories and Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants7.5.2 Carbon Monoxide as an Asphyxiant7.5.3 Indoor Particulates: Asbestos, Dust, and Smoke7.5.4 Common Natural Indoor Pollutants: Radon, Mold, Dust7.5.5 Human-Made Indoor Pollutants: VOCs, Formaldehyde, Lead7.5.6 Combustion-Related Indoor Pollutants (Including Tobacco Smoke)7.5.7 Radon-222: Origin and How It Enters Homes7.5.8 Health Effects of Radon Exposure7.6 Reduction of Air Pollutants0/07.6.1 Overview: Reducing Pollutants at the Source7.6.2 Vapor Recovery Nozzles at Gas Pumps7.6.3 Catalytic Converters and Exhaust Chemistry7.6.4 Wet and Dry Scrubbers (Industrial Control)7.6.5 Coal Power Plants: Scrubbers and Electrostatic Precipitators7.7 Acid Rain0/07.7.1 What Is Acid Deposition?7.7.2 Major Sources of NOx and SO27.7.3 Downwind Patterns and Who Is Affected7.7.4 Environmental and Structural Impacts7.7.5 Regional Differences and Buffering Capacity7.8 Noise Pollution0/07.8.1 Defining Noise Pollution and Human Health Effects7.8.2 Sources of Urban Noise7.8.3 Ecological Impacts of Noise on Wildlife7. Atmospheric Pollution7.1 Introduction to Air Pollution0/07.1.1 Coal Combustion Pollutants7.1.2 Fossil Fuels, NOx, and Secondary Pollution7.1.3 Other Fossil-Fuel Pollutants (CO, Hydrocarbons, PM)7.1.4 Sulfur Dioxide from Diesel and Air Quality7.1.5 Lead Regulation and the Clean Air Act7.1.6 Primary vs. Secondary Pollutants7.2 Photochemical Smog0/07.2.1 Formation of Photochemical Smog7.2.2 Environmental Conditions that Affect Smog Formation7.2.3 Daily and Seasonal Ozone Patterns7.2.4 VOCs: Human and Natural Sources7.2.5 Why Smog Is Common in Cities7.2.6 Health Impacts of Photochemical Smog7.2.7 Reducing Photochemical Smog7.3 Thermal Inversion0/07.3.1 What Is a Thermal Inversion?7.3.2 How Inversions Trap Pollution7.4 Atmospheric CO2 and Particulates0/07.4.1 Natural Sources of Atmospheric CO27.4.2 Natural Sources of Particulate Matter7.5 Indoor Air Pollutants0/07.5.1 Categories and Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants7.5.2 Carbon Monoxide as an Asphyxiant7.5.3 Indoor Particulates: Asbestos, Dust, and Smoke7.5.4 Common Natural Indoor Pollutants: Radon, Mold, Dust7.5.5 Human-Made Indoor Pollutants: VOCs, Formaldehyde, Lead7.5.6 Combustion-Related Indoor Pollutants (Including Tobacco Smoke)7.5.7 Radon-222: Origin and How It Enters Homes7.5.8 Health Effects of Radon Exposure7.6 Reduction of Air Pollutants0/07.6.1 Overview: Reducing Pollutants at the Source7.6.2 Vapor Recovery Nozzles at Gas Pumps7.6.3 Catalytic Converters and Exhaust Chemistry7.6.4 Wet and Dry Scrubbers (Industrial Control)7.6.5 Coal Power Plants: Scrubbers and Electrostatic Precipitators7.7 Acid Rain0/07.7.1 What Is Acid Deposition?7.7.2 Major Sources of NOx and SO27.7.3 Downwind Patterns and Who Is Affected7.7.4 Environmental and Structural Impacts7.7.5 Regional Differences and Buffering Capacity7.8 Noise Pollution0/07.8.1 Defining Noise Pollution and Human Health Effects7.8.2 Sources of Urban Noise7.8.3 Ecological Impacts of Noise on Wildlife8. Aquatic and Terrestrial Pollution8.1 Sources of Pollution0/08.1.1 Point Sources: Single Identifiable Inputs8.1.2 Nonpoint Sources: Diffuse Inputs and Runoff8.2 Human Impacts on Ecosystems0/08.2.1 Tolerance Ranges and Pollution Stress in Aquatic Organisms8.2.2 Coral Reefs: Drivers of Damage8.2.3 Oil Spills: Ecological and Economic Consequences8.2.4 Nutrient Pollution, Dead Zones, and Oxygen Sag Curves8.2.5 Metals, Mercury, Sediment, and Litter in Waterways8.3 Endocrine Disruptors0/08.3.1 What Endocrine Disruptors Are8.3.2 Ecosystem Effects of Endocrine Disruptors8.4 Human Impacts on Wetlands and Mangroves0/08.4.1 Wetlands and Mangroves: What They Are8.4.2 Wetland Ecosystem Services8.4.3 Threats to Wetlands and Mangroves8.5 Eutrophication0/08.5.1 Nutrient Enrichment and Eutrophic Waters8.5.2 Algal Blooms, Decomposition, and Oxygen Depletion8.5.3 Hypoxic, Eutrophic, and Oligotrophic Conditions8.5.4 Anthropogenic Causes of Eutrophication8.6 Thermal Pollution0/08.6.1 Thermal Pollution: Heat Inputs and Ecosystem Effects8.6.2 Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen8.7 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)0/08.7.1 What POPs Are and Why They Persist8.7.2 Why POPs Are Toxic: Fat Solubility and Storage8.7.3 Long-Range Transport of POPs8.8 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification0/08.8.1 Bioaccumulation: Buildup Within an Organism8.8.2 Biomagnification: Increasing Concentrations Up Food Webs8.8.3 Ecosystem Effects at Higher Trophic Levels8.8.4 Human Health Effects and Key Examples8.9 Solid Waste Disposal0/08.9.1 What Solid Waste Is and Where It Comes From8.9.2 Landfills: Benefits and Environmental Risks8.9.3 Sanitary Landfills: Key Design Components8.9.4 Decomposition in Landfills: What Controls It8.9.5 Incineration and Improper Disposal (Illegal and Ocean Dumping)8.10 Waste Reduction Methods0/08.10.1 Recycling: Turning Waste Into New Products8.10.2 Recycling Tradeoffs: Energy Use and Cost8.10.3 Composting: Organic Waste to Fertilizer (and Drawbacks)8.10.4 Reducing E‑Waste Through Reuse and Recycling8.10.5 Landfill Mitigation and Energy Recovery8.11 Sewage Treatment0/08.11.1 Why Sewage Treatment Matters8.11.2 Primary Treatment: Physical Removal and Settling8.11.3 Secondary Treatment: Biological Breakdown With Aeration8.11.4 Tertiary Treatment and Disinfection8.12 Lethal Dose 50% (LD50)0/08.12.1 Defining LD50 and What It Represents8.13 Dose Response Curve0/08.13.1 Interpreting Dose–Response Curves8.14 Pollution and Human Health0/08.14.1 Why Causation Is Hard to Prove in Human Health8.14.2 Untreated Sewage and Dysentery8.14.3 Asbestos Exposure and Mesothelioma8.14.4 Tropospheric Ozone and Respiratory Health8.15 Pathogens and Infectious Diseases0/08.15.1 How Pathogens Spread and Adapt8.15.2 Pathogens Can Be Present Even When Conditions Look Sanitary8.15.3 Climate Shifts and Expanding Disease Ranges8.15.4 Poverty, Sanitation, and Contaminated Water8.15.5 Examples: Plague, Tuberculosis, Malaria, and West Nile Virus8.15.6 Examples: SARS, MERS, Zika, and Cholera8. Aquatic and Terrestrial Pollution8.1 Sources of Pollution0/08.1.1 Point Sources: Single Identifiable Inputs8.1.2 Nonpoint Sources: Diffuse Inputs and Runoff8.2 Human Impacts on Ecosystems0/08.2.1 Tolerance Ranges and Pollution Stress in Aquatic Organisms8.2.2 Coral Reefs: Drivers of Damage8.2.3 Oil Spills: Ecological and Economic Consequences8.2.4 Nutrient Pollution, Dead Zones, and Oxygen Sag Curves8.2.5 Metals, Mercury, Sediment, and Litter in Waterways8.3 Endocrine Disruptors0/08.3.1 What Endocrine Disruptors Are8.3.2 Ecosystem Effects of Endocrine Disruptors8.4 Human Impacts on Wetlands and Mangroves0/08.4.1 Wetlands and Mangroves: What They Are8.4.2 Wetland Ecosystem Services8.4.3 Threats to Wetlands and Mangroves8.5 Eutrophication0/08.5.1 Nutrient Enrichment and Eutrophic Waters8.5.2 Algal Blooms, Decomposition, and Oxygen Depletion8.5.3 Hypoxic, Eutrophic, and Oligotrophic Conditions8.5.4 Anthropogenic Causes of Eutrophication8.6 Thermal Pollution0/08.6.1 Thermal Pollution: Heat Inputs and Ecosystem Effects8.6.2 Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen8.7 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)0/08.7.1 What POPs Are and Why They Persist8.7.2 Why POPs Are Toxic: Fat Solubility and Storage8.7.3 Long-Range Transport of POPs8.8 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification0/08.8.1 Bioaccumulation: Buildup Within an Organism8.8.2 Biomagnification: Increasing Concentrations Up Food Webs8.8.3 Ecosystem Effects at Higher Trophic Levels8.8.4 Human Health Effects and Key Examples8.9 Solid Waste Disposal0/08.9.1 What Solid Waste Is and Where It Comes From8.9.2 Landfills: Benefits and Environmental Risks8.9.3 Sanitary Landfills: Key Design Components8.9.4 Decomposition in Landfills: What Controls It8.9.5 Incineration and Improper Disposal (Illegal and Ocean Dumping)8.10 Waste Reduction Methods0/08.10.1 Recycling: Turning Waste Into New Products8.10.2 Recycling Tradeoffs: Energy Use and Cost8.10.3 Composting: Organic Waste to Fertilizer (and Drawbacks)8.10.4 Reducing E‑Waste Through Reuse and Recycling8.10.5 Landfill Mitigation and Energy Recovery8.11 Sewage Treatment0/08.11.1 Why Sewage Treatment Matters8.11.2 Primary Treatment: Physical Removal and Settling8.11.3 Secondary Treatment: Biological Breakdown With Aeration8.11.4 Tertiary Treatment and Disinfection8.12 Lethal Dose 50% (LD50)0/08.12.1 Defining LD50 and What It Represents8.13 Dose Response Curve0/08.13.1 Interpreting Dose–Response Curves8.14 Pollution and Human Health0/08.14.1 Why Causation Is Hard to Prove in Human Health8.14.2 Untreated Sewage and Dysentery8.14.3 Asbestos Exposure and Mesothelioma8.14.4 Tropospheric Ozone and Respiratory Health8.15 Pathogens and Infectious Diseases0/08.15.1 How Pathogens Spread and Adapt8.15.2 Pathogens Can Be Present Even When Conditions Look Sanitary8.15.3 Climate Shifts and Expanding Disease Ranges8.15.4 Poverty, Sanitation, and Contaminated Water8.15.5 Examples: Plague, Tuberculosis, Malaria, and West Nile Virus8.15.6 Examples: SARS, MERS, Zika, and Cholera9. Global Change9.1 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion0/09.1.1 Why the stratospheric ozone layer matters9.1.2 What causes ozone depletion9.1.3 Health effects of increased UV radiation9.2 Reducing Ozone Depletion0/09.2.1 Replacing ozone-depleting chemicals9.2.2 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and trade-offs9.3 The Greenhouse Effect0/09.3.1 Principal greenhouse gases9.3.2 Water vapor and why it matters less for climate change9.3.3 How the greenhouse effect supports life9.3.4 Greenhouse gas potency and global warming potential (GWP)9.4 Increases in the Greenhouse Gases0/09.4.1 Rising sea levels: ice melt and thermal expansion9.4.2 Shifting disease vectors and human health risks9.4.3 Population dynamics and climate-driven migration9.5 Global Climate Change0/09.5.1 Evidence of climate change through geologic time9.5.2 Key impacts: warming, ice melt, sea-level rise, and displacement9.5.3 Sea-level change and marine ecosystems9.5.4 Atmospheric circulation, heat transport, and changing wind patterns9.5.5 Ocean conveyor belt currents and coastal climate9.5.6 Climate change impacts on soil and erosion9.5.7 Polar amplification and albedo feedback9.5.8 Arctic feedback loops and impacts on ice-dependent species9.6 Ocean Warming0/09.6.1 Why oceans are warming9.6.2 Impacts of warming on marine organisms9.6.3 Coral bleaching as a consequence of warming9.7 Ocean Acidification0/09.7.1 Defining ocean acidification and the chemistry idea9.7.2 How added CO2 makes oceans more acidic9.7.3 Human activities that increase CO2 and drive acidification9.7.4 Effects on corals and calcium carbonate shells9.8 Invasive Species0/09.8.1 What makes a species invasive9.8.2 Why invasive species often outcompete natives9.8.3 Strategies to control invasive species9.9 Endangered Species0/09.9.1 Why species become threatened with extinction9.9.2 Why vulnerability differs among species9.9.3 Selective pressures and changing fitness9.9.4 Competition for resources and endangerment9.9.5 Protecting endangered populations9.10 Human Impacts on Biodiversity0/09.10.1 HIPPCO: major drivers of biodiversity loss9.10.2 Habitat fragmentation and its causes9.10.3 Why fragmentation affects species differently9.10.4 Climate change as a cause of habitat loss9.10.5 Domestication and managed populations9.10.6 Mitigating biodiversity loss9. Global Change9.1 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion0/09.1.1 Why the stratospheric ozone layer matters9.1.2 What causes ozone depletion9.1.3 Health effects of increased UV radiation9.2 Reducing Ozone Depletion0/09.2.1 Replacing ozone-depleting chemicals9.2.2 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and trade-offs9.3 The Greenhouse Effect0/09.3.1 Principal greenhouse gases9.3.2 Water vapor and why it matters less for climate change9.3.3 How the greenhouse effect supports life9.3.4 Greenhouse gas potency and global warming potential (GWP)9.4 Increases in the Greenhouse Gases0/09.4.1 Rising sea levels: ice melt and thermal expansion9.4.2 Shifting disease vectors and human health risks9.4.3 Population dynamics and climate-driven migration9.5 Global Climate Change0/09.5.1 Evidence of climate change through geologic time9.5.2 Key impacts: warming, ice melt, sea-level rise, and displacement9.5.3 Sea-level change and marine ecosystems9.5.4 Atmospheric circulation, heat transport, and changing wind patterns9.5.5 Ocean conveyor belt currents and coastal climate9.5.6 Climate change impacts on soil and erosion9.5.7 Polar amplification and albedo feedback9.5.8 Arctic feedback loops and impacts on ice-dependent species9.6 Ocean Warming0/09.6.1 Why oceans are warming9.6.2 Impacts of warming on marine organisms9.6.3 Coral bleaching as a consequence of warming9.7 Ocean Acidification0/09.7.1 Defining ocean acidification and the chemistry idea9.7.2 How added CO2 makes oceans more acidic9.7.3 Human activities that increase CO2 and drive acidification9.7.4 Effects on corals and calcium carbonate shells9.8 Invasive Species0/09.8.1 What makes a species invasive9.8.2 Why invasive species often outcompete natives9.8.3 Strategies to control invasive species9.9 Endangered Species0/09.9.1 Why species become threatened with extinction9.9.2 Why vulnerability differs among species9.9.3 Selective pressures and changing fitness9.9.4 Competition for resources and endangerment9.9.5 Protecting endangered populations9.10 Human Impacts on Biodiversity0/09.10.1 HIPPCO: major drivers of biodiversity loss9.10.2 Habitat fragmentation and its causes9.10.3 Why fragmentation affects species differently9.10.4 Climate change as a cause of habitat loss9.10.5 Domestication and managed populations9.10.6 Mitigating biodiversity loss
