The Provisional Government’s weaknesses and failures paved the way for the Bolsheviks’ rise, who gained support through organization, leadership, and a clear revolutionary agenda.
Background to the Provisional Government
The February Revolution and the End of Tsarist Rule
By early 1917, discontent with the Russian monarchy had reached breaking point. Russia had suffered enormous losses in World War I, with millions of soldiers killed, wounded, or captured. Food and fuel shortages were severe, particularly in the cities, and public frustration was growing. In Petrograd, strikes and protests intensified as factory workers demanded better conditions and bread.
In February 1917 (March, according to the Western calendar), mass protests escalated into a full revolution. The army, instead of suppressing the unrest, began to mutiny and joined the protesters. Faced with this overwhelming opposition and lacking military support, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on March 2, 1917, ending more than 300 years of Romanov rule.
The Duma, Russia’s parliament, quickly formed a Provisional Government to act as a temporary ruling body until democratic elections could be held. This government, composed largely of liberals and moderate socialists, aimed to stabilize the country and transition it toward a democratic future.
The Petrograd Soviet and Dual Authority
While the Provisional Government assumed formal political authority, a more radical and influential force emerged: the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies. This council represented workers and soldiers and rapidly gained influence over key institutions in the capital.
The dual power system created constant tension. The Provisional Government passed laws and led policy decisions, but the Petrograd Soviet controlled the army, communications, and much of the infrastructure through Order No. 1, which instructed soldiers to obey the Soviet over the Provisional Government when their commands conflicted. This duality of power severely weakened the authority of the Provisional Government and created a power vacuum that would be exploited by the Bolsheviks.
Weaknesses and Failures of the Provisional Government
Lack of Legitimacy and Temporary Status
From its inception, the Provisional Government was plagued by questions of legitimacy. It had not been elected by the Russian people and was perceived by many as a continuation of the old ruling elite. The leaders, primarily members of the former Duma, were not seen as true representatives of the masses.
Their insistence on remaining a temporary body until a Constituent Assembly could be elected led to inaction on many critical issues. This hesitation prevented them from enacting popular reforms, like land redistribution, that could have secured broader support.
Continuation of the War
One of the most controversial decisions made by the Provisional Government was to continue fighting in World War I. This decision was motivated by a desire to honor commitments to the Allies, avoid international isolation, and maintain national honor. However, the Russian people, especially soldiers and peasants, desperately wanted peace.
The war continued to cause immense human suffering and economic devastation. In June 1917, the Provisional Government launched a new offensive on the Eastern Front, known as the June Offensive, which ended in disaster with heavy Russian losses and further demoralization. This event severely damaged the government’s credibility and boosted anti-war sentiment across the country.
Land Reforms and Peasant Discontent
The peasantry, which made up the vast majority of Russia’s population, demanded land redistribution. Centuries of inequality and land hunger had left many peasants impoverished and desperate for reform.
However, the Provisional Government refused to address land issues, insisting that land redistribution must wait for the Constituent Assembly. This delay fueled rural unrest, and in many areas, peasants began seizing land without government approval. The government condemned these actions as illegal, further alienating peasants who had once supported reformist efforts.
Economic Turmoil and Urban Frustration
Russia’s urban centers were experiencing severe economic difficulties. Inflation spiraled out of control, wages failed to keep pace with rising prices, and food shortages led to long queues and malnutrition. Strikes, protests, and factory shutdowns became commonplace.
The Provisional Government proved incapable of addressing the economic crisis. Its policies lacked coordination and failed to win the confidence of workers. As living conditions deteriorated, workers turned to more radical groups, especially the Bolsheviks, who promised immediate solutions.
Political Naivety and Mismanagement
Unlike autocratic governments, the Provisional Government allowed freedom of speech, assembly, and press. While this was a major step toward democratic governance, it also meant that radical opposition groups, including the Bolsheviks, were free to organize, campaign, and publish anti-government propaganda.
Rather than silencing its critics or managing public discourse, the Provisional Government’s leniency created a fertile environment for revolutionary ideas to spread rapidly among the disillusioned populace.
The Bolsheviks: Origins and Strategy
Lenin’s Return and the April Theses
In April 1917, Vladimir Lenin returned from exile in Switzerland, aided by the Germans who hoped he would destabilize Russia and pull it out of the war. Upon his arrival, Lenin stunned his fellow socialists by issuing the April Theses, a bold political manifesto that rejected all cooperation with the Provisional Government.
Key points of the April Theses included:
Immediate withdrawal from World War I
Redistribution of land to peasants
Nationalization of industry and banks
“All power to the Soviets”, advocating the dismantling of the Provisional Government
These ideas were initially considered extreme, but they soon resonated with large segments of society who were frustrated by the government’s failures. Lenin’s clear and uncompromising stance gave the Bolsheviks a distinct identity and message.
Trotsky’s Leadership and Organization
Leon Trotsky, a charismatic Marxist revolutionary and orator, returned to Russia and soon joined the Bolshevik Party. His organizational skills and political insight proved crucial.
Trotsky became Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet and was instrumental in:
Recruiting and training the Red Guards, a workers’ militia
Organizing the Military Revolutionary Committee
Strategizing the eventual Bolshevik seizure of power
His partnership with Lenin provided the movement with both ideological leadership and practical execution.
Expansion of Bolshevik Support
Between February and October 1917, the Bolsheviks grew from a fringe group into a mass revolutionary party. Membership soared:
Around 10,000 members in February
Over 250,000 by October
They gained support by:
Capitalizing on worker and soldier discontent
Winning elections in local Soviets, especially in Petrograd and Moscow
Promoting simple, effective slogans like “Peace, Bread, Land”
Their growing strength allowed them to establish control over arms stockpiles, military garrisons, and key communication centers in the capital.
Critical Turning Points in 1917
The July Days
In July 1917, spontaneous demonstrations erupted in Petrograd. Angry soldiers and workers protested against the war and the government. Although the Bolsheviks were not the organizers, they were blamed for inciting unrest.
In response:
The government cracked down on the Bolsheviks
Many leaders were arrested
Lenin fled to Finland for safety
The Bolsheviks suffered a temporary setback, but the event highlighted the government’s fragility and the growing volatility of the Russian political landscape.
The Kornilov Affair
In August 1917, General Lavr Kornilov, commander of the Russian army, attempted to march on Petrograd with the aim of restoring order and possibly establishing a military dictatorship.
Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky, fearing a coup, turned to the Bolsheviks for help:
The Red Guards were armed and mobilized to defend the capital
Kornilov’s troops refused to fight fellow Russians, and the coup collapsed
Although the government survived, the Bolsheviks emerged greatly strengthened:
They were seen as defenders of the revolution
They kept the weapons given to them
Public trust in the Provisional Government further declined
The October Revolution
Lenin’s Push for Immediate Action
By October, Lenin believed conditions were ideal for a seizure of power. He returned to Petrograd and persuaded the Bolshevik Central Committee to prepare for a revolution.
Lenin feared that if they waited for the Constituent Assembly elections, the Bolsheviks might not secure a majority, and the chance for a radical takeover would be lost.
Trotsky’s Military Strategy
Trotsky, now head of the Military Revolutionary Committee, coordinated the uprising with precision. The Committee controlled:
The Petrograd garrison
The Red Guards
Military infrastructure, including weapons depots and transport hubs
Trotsky scheduled the uprising to coincide with the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, ensuring Bolshevik dominance in the political sphere immediately after the coup.
Seizure of Power
On the night of October 25–26, 1917 (November 6–7 in the Western calendar), Bolshevik forces launched a coordinated and largely bloodless takeover of Petrograd:
They occupied key sites: railway stations, telegraph offices, banks, and bridges
The Winter Palace, the Provisional Government’s headquarters, was stormed
Most government officials were arrested or fled
Kerensky escaped and attempted to rally support but failed. By morning, the Bolsheviks held power.
Aftermath of the Revolution
The Bolsheviks quickly moved to consolidate their control:
A new government was formed: the Council of People’s Commissars, led by Lenin
Decrees were issued on peace, land, and workers’ control, aiming to fulfill their promises
Opposition parties were banned or suppressed
The Provisional Government, weakened by indecision, unpopularity, and poor leadership, had been replaced by a determined and ideologically driven regime that would fundamentally reshape Russia.
FAQ
The Red Guards were crucial to the success of the Bolshevik seizure of power in October 1917. They were a paramilitary force made up mostly of armed factory workers, sailors, and sympathetic soldiers who were loyal to the Bolsheviks. Trotsky played a central role in organizing and arming the Red Guards, particularly during and after the Kornilov Affair, when they gained legitimacy as defenders of the revolution. By October, the Red Guards were well-equipped, disciplined, and strategically positioned across Petrograd. They were tasked with seizing key infrastructure such as railway stations, bridges, post offices, and the telegraph system to cut off communication and transport links for the Provisional Government. During the actual October Revolution, the Red Guards led the takeover with minimal resistance and ensured a smooth transfer of power by surrounding the Winter Palace and arresting ministers. Their loyalty and readiness were essential in ensuring the revolution's success with little bloodshed.
Bolshevik propaganda played a vital role in spreading revolutionary ideas and winning mass support in 1917. Lenin and the Bolsheviks effectively used simple, targeted slogans like “Peace, Bread, Land” and “All Power to the Soviets” that directly addressed the concerns of ordinary Russians—soldiers, workers, and peasants alike. These messages were communicated through leaflets, posters, speeches, and newspapers such as Pravda, the party’s official publication. The Bolsheviks portrayed themselves as the only political force willing and able to withdraw from the war, deliver food to starving urban populations, and redistribute land to peasants. Their propaganda also emphasized the failures of the Provisional Government, painting it as weak, bourgeois, and disconnected from the needs of the people. This clear messaging contrasted sharply with the indecisive and vague policies of the Provisional Government. By constantly presenting themselves as champions of the people’s interests, the Bolsheviks were able to gain increasing popularity and undermine support for moderate socialist and liberal parties.
The Provisional Government delayed holding elections for the Constituent Assembly due to a combination of logistical difficulties, political calculations, and instability. Russia was a vast country in turmoil, with poor transport and communication infrastructure, made worse by the ongoing war and widespread unrest. Organizing a nationwide democratic election under these conditions was extremely challenging. Additionally, members of the Provisional Government, particularly liberal leaders like Alexander Kerensky, feared that holding elections too soon would result in a victory for the socialist parties—particularly the Bolsheviks and the Socialist Revolutionaries—who had stronger support among the working classes and peasants. As such, they delayed the vote in hopes of stabilizing the country and improving their political position. However, this delay led to growing frustration among the population and gave the Bolsheviks time to build their strength. By the time the elections were scheduled for late November 1917, the Bolsheviks had already seized power in the October Revolution.
The Provisional Government attempted to maintain order by relying on traditional institutions such as the police, the army, and local government officials. However, many of these institutions had already broken down or lost legitimacy after the February Revolution. The government tried to appeal to patriotic sentiment and support for democratic reforms, but it lacked both the authority and means to enforce its policies. It also issued liberal decrees allowing freedom of speech, press, and assembly, which unintentionally gave opposition groups like the Bolsheviks more room to operate and organize. The Provisional Government also attempted to rely on the army to suppress unrest, but morale among soldiers was extremely low due to the war. Soldiers deserted in large numbers and often sided with protesters. The failure to address land redistribution and worsening economic conditions further inflamed unrest. These efforts were ultimately ineffective because the government lacked real power and widespread support, especially outside of Petrograd.
The Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC) was an armed body formed by the Petrograd Soviet in October 1917 to protect the capital from counter-revolutionary threats, particularly in response to fears of another Kornilov-style military coup. In practice, it became the central force coordinating the Bolsheviks' seizure of power. Under Trotsky’s leadership, the MRC effectively took control of Petrograd’s defenses, military units, and weapons stockpiles. It issued orders to garrisons, managed troop deployments, and oversaw the activities of the Red Guards. Although it was technically a Soviet body, the MRC was dominated by Bolsheviks and operated in close alignment with Lenin’s revolutionary strategy. By using the MRC, the Bolsheviks were able to take power under the guise of defending the revolution, rather than launching a coup. On the night of October 25–26, the MRC directed the seizure of government buildings, communications, and key infrastructure. Its existence gave the Bolsheviks both a legal cover and a practical command structure for their revolution.
Practice Questions
Explain two effects of the Kornilov Affair on the Bolsheviks.
The Kornilov Affair significantly increased the popularity and influence of the Bolsheviks. When Kerensky armed the Red Guards to defend Petrograd from General Kornilov’s attempted coup, the Bolsheviks gained credibility as defenders of the revolution. This allowed them to present themselves as the true protectors of workers and soldiers. Additionally, the Bolsheviks were able to keep their weapons after the event, giving them a stronger military presence in the capital. The failure of the Provisional Government to control the situation also weakened public confidence in its leadership, further boosting support for the Bolsheviks’ call for power to the Soviets.
Write a narrative account of the events leading to the October/November Revolution of 1917.
After the Provisional Government failed to address key issues like war and land, support for the Bolsheviks grew. Lenin returned in April 1917 and issued the April Theses, demanding peace, land, and power to the Soviets. In July, protests erupted but were suppressed, weakening the Bolsheviks briefly. However, the Kornilov Affair in August allowed them to gain weapons and public support. By October, the Bolsheviks controlled the Petrograd Soviet, and Trotsky organized the Red Guards. On October 25–26, they seized key buildings and overthrew the government. The timing was planned to coincide with the Soviet Congress, securing political control.
