OCR Specification focus:
‘the Convention and the Terror; the destruction of the Girondins; the ascendancy and fall of Robespierre’
The period 1793–1794 witnessed the height of revolutionary radicalism. It was marked by the dominance of the National Convention, the imposition of the Reign of Terror, and the violent downfall of the Girondins, culminating in the rise and eventual fall of Robespierre.
The National Convention
The National Convention replaced the Legislative Assembly in September 1792, following the fall of the monarchy.
A simple chart showing the relative numbers of Montagnards, Marais, and Girondins in the National Convention formed in September 1792. Source
It was tasked with creating a new constitution and directing the war effort against foreign powers.
Key Features
Declared France a Republic (22 September 1792).
Dominated initially by two rival factions: Girondins (moderates) and Jacobins/Montagnards (radicals).
Faced external threats from the First Coalition and internal challenges such as royalist uprisings and federalist revolts.
National Convention: The revolutionary assembly elected in 1792 to govern France, abolish the monarchy, and oversee the Republic during wartime crisis.
The execution of Louis XVI in January 1793 deepened divisions, alienating moderates and foreign monarchies, while emboldening radicals.
The Girondins and Their Destruction
The Girondins were a moderate republican faction who favoured decentralisation and opposed radical measures. They were strong in provincial support but weaker in Paris.
Weaknesses of the Girondins
Reluctance to pursue extreme revolutionary violence.
Hostility to the radical Paris Commune and sans-culottes.
Opposition to the centralisation of power in Paris.
By mid-1793, the Girondins lost political credibility:
Their resistance to the execution of the king alienated radicals.
Accusations of royalist sympathies and failure in wartime leadership weakened them.
In June 1793, sans-culottes pressure and Jacobin manoeuvring forced the arrest of leading Girondins.
This effectively destroyed their influence and left the Jacobins dominant.
Girondins: A political faction in the National Convention advocating moderate republicanism, decentralisation, and opposition to the radical Jacobins and Paris Commune.
The Jacobins and the Reign of Terror
The Jacobins, or Montagnards, used radical policies to safeguard the Revolution. Under their dominance, France entered the Reign of Terror (1793–1794).
Causes of the Terror
War with the First Coalition, including Britain, Austria, and Prussia.
Counter-revolutionary uprisings, especially in the Vendée.
Economic hardship and food shortages.Revolutionary paranoia about conspiracies and betrayal.
Instruments of Terror
The Jacobins, supported by the Committee of Public Safety (CPS) and Committee of General Security (CGS), introduced harsh measures:
Law of Suspects (1793): Broadened definitions of treason.
Revolutionary Tribunals: Tried political suspects rapidly.
Maximum Price Laws: Controlled food prices and wages.
Use of the guillotine as a symbol of revolutionary justice.
The Role of Robespierre
Maximilien Robespierre, a leading Jacobin, was central to the Terror’s ideology. He justified terror as a necessary tool of virtue, ensuring the Republic’s survival.
Reign of Terror: Period between 1793–1794 during which revolutionary authorities used widespread violence, executions, and repression to secure the French Republic against internal and external threats.
Robespierre’s Ascendancy
Advocated a vision of Republican virtue, linking democracy with moral purity.
Became dominant within the CPS by mid-1793.
Drove policies including de-Christianisation (though he opposed its extremes) and promotion of the Cult of the Supreme Being.
The Fall of Robespierre
By 1794, Robespierre’s dominance became unstable:
Growing resentment from within the Convention, including former allies.
Alienation of sans-culottes due to economic difficulties.
Opposition to his rigid moral stance and increasing reliance on purges.
On 27 July 1794 (9 Thermidor Year II), Robespierre and his allies were overthrown and executed.
Engraving showing Robespierre and his associates being led to execution by guillotine on 28 July 1794, symbolising the tragedy of the Thermidorian overthrow. Source
This marked the end of the Terror and weakened Jacobin radicalism.
Key Consequences
End of extreme revolutionary violence.
Shift of power towards more moderate deputies (Thermidorians).
Beginning of political stabilisation under the Directory.
Summary of Processes and Dynamics
1792–1793: National Convention struggles with war and factionalism.
June 1793: Girondins destroyed, Jacobins take control.
1793–1794: Terror imposed through CPS and CGS, extensive repression.
July 1794: Robespierre falls; Terror ends.
This period was crucial in shaping revolutionary France, showing both the dangers of radicalisation and the volatility of revolutionary politics.
FAQ
The sans-culottes applied constant pressure on the Convention through demonstrations, petitions, and direct threats of insurrection. Their radical demands for price controls and harsher action against counter-revolutionaries aligned closely with Jacobin policies, helping to marginalise the Girondins.
The Jacobins relied on sans-culottes militancy to enforce order in Paris and maintain support for the Terror. However, this dependence also tied them to popular unrest and contributed to later instability.
The Committee of Public Safety (CPS) centralised authority at a time of crisis. It directed foreign policy, oversaw the war effort, and supervised internal security.
Controlled revolutionary armies and appointed generals.
Directed economic policy, including food distribution.
Coordinated with the Committee of General Security to root out dissent.
Its power derived from both legal authority granted by the Convention and informal influence through Jacobin dominance.
Propaganda reinforced the idea that France was surrounded by traitors and enemies. Newspapers, pamphlets, and speeches painted opponents as conspirators working against the Republic.
Festivals, such as the Festival of the Supreme Being, sought to instil unity and revolutionary virtue. Visual imagery—like the guillotine—was presented as both a deterrent and a symbol of justice, legitimising repression as patriotic duty.
Persistent food shortages and inflation radicalised public opinion. The sans-culottes demanded intervention, leading to:
Law of the Maximum (1793): fixing prices of essentials.
State control over grain supplies.
Punishments for hoarders and profiteers.
Economic hardship sharpened divisions and forced the Jacobins to maintain harsh discipline. Failure to stabilise conditions could have led to mass revolt against the Convention.
After Robespierre’s execution in July 1794, the Thermidorians dismantled the mechanisms of the Terror. Revolutionary Tribunals were restricted, and thousands of prisoners released.
Jacobins were purged from leadership, while moderates regained influence. The political climate shifted towards pragmatism and stability, paving the way for the Directory.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year were the leading Girondins arrested and expelled from the National Convention?
Question 1 (2 marks)
1 mark for correct identification of the year.
Correct answer: 1793.
Award full 2 marks for giving the precise year.
If candidate gives incorrect year, award 0 marks.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why the Jacobins introduced the Reign of Terror in 1793–1794.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Basic statements with little explanation.
May simply state “because of foreign war” or “because of uprisings” with no elaboration.
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Explains one reason with some detail, e.g. “The Jacobins introduced the Terror because France was at war with the First Coalition and they feared defeat.”
Limited or partial explanation of a second reason.
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Explains two clear reasons in detail.
Examples:
War with the First Coalition: The external threat from Britain, Austria, and Prussia required harsh internal discipline to maintain unity and support the war effort.
Internal uprisings: Counter-revolutionary revolts such as the Vendée and federalist revolts convinced Jacobins that repression was needed to crush opposition.
Each developed reason is worth up to 3 marks. Two developed reasons = 6 marks.
