OCR Specification focus:
‘The attempts to establish a constitutional monarchy; reforms in church and state; the significance of riots and direct political action 1789–1792.’
The years 1789 to 1792 marked a turbulent experiment in reshaping France, as revolutionaries sought to forge a constitutional monarchy, restructure the church and state, and respond to increasingly assertive popular movements.
Establishing a Constitutional Monarchy
The revolutionaries of 1789 aimed not at abolishing monarchy but transforming it into a system bound by law. This shift from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy required the curbing of royal powers and the creation of representative institutions.
The National Assembly and the 1791 Constitution
The National Assembly, emerging from the Estates General, took the lead in drafting reforms. After the storming of the Bastille and the August Decrees, its central project became constitutional design.
1791 Constitution established:
Separation of powers: legislative authority rested with the Assembly, executive power with the King.
Suspensive veto: the King could delay, but not block, laws.
Legislative Assembly elected under a system favouring wealthier active citizens, excluding passive citizens (those without sufficient property).
Active Citizens: Men who paid a certain level of tax, giving them the right to vote in elections under the 1791 Constitution.
This arrangement weakened Louis XVI’s traditional authority while ensuring monarchy survived as an institution. However, tensions soon arose between royalist supporters, who felt the King had lost too much power, and radical revolutionaries, who wanted greater change.
Limits of Royal Cooperation
Louis XVI reluctantly accepted reforms but remained sceptical of revolutionary change. His vetoes of decrees against émigrés and refractory clergy deepened mistrust. The King’s attempted escape during the Flight to Varennes (1791) further undermined confidence, raising doubts about the possibility of a genuine constitutional monarchy.
Reforms in Church and State
A vital element of early revolutionary reform was the attempt to bring the Catholic Church under state control.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy sought to rationalise and nationalise the Church:
Clergy became salaried state officials.
Dioceses were redrawn to match administrative divisions.
Bishops and priests were to be elected by citizens.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy: Revolutionary legislation of 1790 that reorganised the Catholic Church in France, making clergy employees of the state and subject to election.
Clergy were required to take an oath of loyalty to the Constitution.
Detail from a commemorative plate showing a priest swearing allegiance to the French state under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790). The image captures the public, politicised nature of the oath. Source
About half refused, becoming known as refractory priests, while those who complied were labelled jurors.
Effects of Religious Reform
Deep division in communities, as parishioners were split between loyalty to refractory or juror clergy.
Widespread resistance in rural areas, where traditional Catholicism remained strong.
Growing perception that revolutionaries were hostile to religion itself, which alienated devout Catholics and linked them to counter-revolutionary movements.
Broader State Reforms
Beyond religion, the revolutionaries introduced:
Administrative reforms: France divided into 83 départements to replace old provincial boundaries.
Map of France showing the 83 départements created in 1790, replacing historic provinces with a uniform administrative grid. This visual reinforces how state reform sought rationality and equality before the law. Source
Judicial reforms: Introduction of elected judges and standardised legal codes.
Economic reforms: Abolition of internal tariffs, guilds, and feudal dues, promoting freer trade.
These changes modernised France but created dislocation, as traditional privileges, protections, and institutions were dismantled rapidly.
Riots and Direct Political Action
The period 1789–1792 was characterised not only by legislative change but also by repeated intervention of the Parisian crowd and popular movements.
Riots and Urban Pressure
October Days (1789): Market women and National Guards marched to Versailles, compelling the royal family to relocate to Paris.
Champ de Mars Massacre (1791): Protestors demanding the King’s abdication were fired upon by the National Guard, illustrating divisions between radicals and moderates.
Direct Political Action: Collective acts, such as demonstrations, riots, or insurrections, designed to pressure or force governments into political change.
These events showed that popular pressure could decisively shape revolutionary outcomes.
Growth of Radical Clubs and Influence
Groups such as the Jacobins and Cordeliers gained influence by articulating popular demands for greater equality and republicanism. Their propaganda and networks linked street politics to revolutionary debate within the Assembly.
War and Radicalisation
The declaration of war against Austria in April 1792, combined with fears of royal betrayal, intensified revolutionary passions. Popular demonstrations grew increasingly militant, culminating in direct assaults on royal authority, including the storming of the Tuileries (August 1792).
Jacques Bertaux’s 1793 painting depicts the storming of the Tuileries Palace on 10 August 1792, as National Guardsmen and insurgents overwhelm the royal Swiss Guard. This event precipitated the suspension of the monarchy and radicalised the Revolution. High-resolution detail makes uniforms, flags, and the palace setting clear for analysis. Source
Significance of Direct Political Action
Riots and popular mobilisation were not mere background noise but central to revolutionary dynamics. They:
Pressured the Assembly to pursue radical reforms it might otherwise have resisted.
Weakened the monarchy by demonstrating the King’s vulnerability.
Fostered a sense of popular sovereignty, in which the people—not the King or even the Assembly—were seen as the ultimate source of legitimacy.
Tensions Between Ideal and Reality
Attempts to create a constitutional monarchy revealed contradictions:
Legal reforms promised stability, but social unrest destabilised politics.
The King remained formally head of state, but mistrust rendered cooperation impossible.
Church reforms promised rational order, but instead provoked bitter division.
Ultimately, while revolutionaries aimed to establish a balanced system of monarchy and representative government, the interplay of reform, royal resistance, and popular action made such equilibrium unsustainable.
FAQ
The Legislative Assembly, established in October 1791, replaced the National Assembly and was responsible for enacting laws under the new constitution.
It attempted to balance power by limiting the King’s authority, but its members were inexperienced, as deputies from the previous Assembly were barred from re-election.
The Assembly also faced immediate crises, such as the émigré threat and growing calls for war, which pushed it into radical policies that destabilised the constitutional monarchy.
The suspensive veto gave Louis XVI the right to delay legislation for up to four years.
It was intended as a compromise to retain monarchical influence.
In practice, Louis used it to block decrees against émigrés and refractory clergy.
This reinforced suspicions that he was sabotaging the Revolution, fuelling hostility from both radicals and moderates.
The veto became a symbol of the monarchy’s obstruction rather than its cooperation.
For rural communities, religion was deeply tied to daily life and tradition.
Parish priests often came from the same villages as their congregations, and loyalty to them was strong.
The state-imposed oath was viewed as sacrilegious and an attack on the Pope’s authority.
Refractory clergy maintained underground services, which attracted more followers than constitutional priests.
This resistance made rural France a centre of counter-revolutionary sentiment.
Political clubs like the Jacobins and Cordeliers connected radical Paris with provincial networks.
They organised debates, produced pamphlets, and coordinated demonstrations, making political action more systematic.
By portraying Louis XVI as a traitor and promoting republican ideas, they increased pressure on the Assembly. Their agitation encouraged events like the journée of 10 August 1792, which directly ended the monarchy.
The war against Austria and Prussia exposed deep divisions.
Royalists were suspected of collusion with foreign powers.
Military defeats discredited the monarchy, as the King was seen as undermining the war effort.
The Brunswick Manifesto, threatening Paris if the royal family was harmed, inflamed suspicion of Louis XVI’s loyalty.
The war radicalised the Revolution and convinced many that a monarchy could not coexist with national survival.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name one reform introduced by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790.
Mark Scheme
1 mark for identifying a valid reform.
Possible correct answers include:
Clergy became salaried officials of the state (1 mark).
Bishops and priests were elected by citizens (1 mark).
Dioceses were reorganised to match administrative divisions (1 mark).
Maximum 2 marks; award up to two distinct reforms.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why the attempt to establish a constitutional monarchy in France between 1789 and 1792 was unsuccessful.
Mark Scheme
Award 1–2 marks for simple statements without development, e.g. “The King did not support the reforms.”
Award 3–4 marks for developed explanation of one or two factors, e.g. linking Louis XVI’s use of the suspensive veto or the Flight to Varennes to a loss of trust in monarchy.
Award 5–6 marks for a more detailed explanation covering several factors, such as:
Royal resistance and lack of genuine cooperation (e.g. vetoes, Flight to Varennes).Popular pressure and riots undermining stability (e.g. October Days, Champ de Mars, storming of the Tuileries).
Divisions caused by religious reforms, particularly the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
External pressures, including war, which radicalised the political climate.
Full marks require explanation of multiple factors and clear linkage to the collapse of constitutional monarchy by 1792.
