OCR Specification focus:
‘Castlereagh 1812–1822, Vienna Settlement, Congress diplomacy’
Between 1812 and 1822, Viscount Castlereagh shaped Britain’s foreign policy, balancing European stability, revolutionary threats, and national interests through Congress diplomacy and international agreements.
Castlereagh’s Role as Foreign Secretary
When Lord Castlereagh became Foreign Secretary in 1812, Britain was embroiled in the Napoleonic Wars. His approach emphasised stability in Europe, recognition of shifting power balances, and careful negotiation with allies. Unlike expansionist foreign ministers, Castlereagh prioritised peace through balance of power, believing that a durable settlement required cooperation among the major powers.
The Vienna Settlement (1814–1815)
Background
The Vienna Congress convened in 1814–1815 to restore European order after Napoleon’s defeat. Its aims were to redraw the map of Europe, prevent revolutionary upheaval, and establish mechanisms for long-term peace.
Political map of Europe after the Congress of Vienna (1815), showing restored French borders, a strengthened Netherlands/Belgium union, and territorial adjustments that underpinned the balance of power. This directly illustrates the settlement Castlereagh helped shape. The map also includes additional Italian and Scandinavian changes which extend beyond the minimal syllabus focus. Source
Britain’s Priorities
Castlereagh’s guiding principles at Vienna included:
Preventing any single power from dominating Europe.
Ensuring security for Britain’s overseas empire by checking French expansion.
Maintaining maritime supremacy rather than acquiring new continental territories.
Creating a balance of power through territorial adjustments.
Key Decisions Influenced by Castlereagh
France was restored to its pre-revolutionary borders, but not excessively weakened, ensuring it remained part of the European system.
The Netherlands were strengthened by uniting with Belgium to form a buffer state against France.
Prussia and Austria gained lands to counterbalance French power.
The creation of the German Confederation helped stabilise Central Europe without allowing Austrian or Prussian dominance.
Locator map of the German Confederation (1815) in green, situating the member states within Europe following the Vienna Settlement. It reinforces how Vienna reorganised Central Europe to contain France and manage Austro-Prussian rivalry. Minimal extra detail is shown beyond the Confederation’s outline. Source
Congress Diplomacy: The Concert of Europe
The Congress System
The Congress System was a series of international meetings designed to preserve the post-Vienna order. Castlereagh was central to its early success, advocating regular consultation between powers to resolve disputes peacefully.
Contemporary engraving of the Congress of Vienna showing the plenipotentiaries around the negotiating table. It captures the diplomatic culture that underpinned Congress diplomacy and the early Concert of Europe. Extra detail includes a numbered legend identifying multiple delegates not all discussed in the notes. Source
Congress System: A diplomatic framework (1815–1822) whereby the great powers held regular congresses to address European issues, aiming to maintain balance and prevent revolution.
Congress Meetings
Aix-la-Chapelle (1818): Addressed the withdrawal of occupation forces from France. Castlereagh supported re-admitting France as a full partner, showing his belief in inclusion rather than punishment.
Troppau (1820) and Laibach (1821): Focused on revolutions in Naples and Piedmont. Castlereagh resisted interventionist policies advocated by Austria and Russia, emphasising non-interference unless Britain’s interests were directly threatened.
Verona (1822): By this stage, Castlereagh’s influence was waning, and Britain distanced itself from continental intervention, particularly regarding Spain.
Britain’s National Interests under Castlereagh
Maritime and Imperial Strategy
Castlereagh consistently defended Britain’s naval supremacy, ensuring freedom of the seas and secure trade routes.
Britain rejected territorial gains on the continent, instead preferring colonial expansion, including territories such as Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope.
Anti-Revolutionary Stance
Castlereagh feared the spread of revolutionary ideology, which he associated with instability and threats to the European order.
He accepted the principle of collective action against revolutions that endangered the balance of power, though he resisted blanket intervention.
Relations with Other Powers
With Austria: Supported Metternich’s aim of conservatism, but avoided full commitment to military suppression of revolts.
With Russia: Balanced cooperation with suspicion of Russian expansionism in Eastern Europe.
With France: Advocated reintegration into the international community to avoid renewed isolation and hostility.
Castlereagh and the Holy Alliance
In 1815, Tsar Alexander I proposed the Holy Alliance, a pact between Russia, Austria, and Prussia to uphold Christian principles and suppress revolution. Castlereagh viewed it as vague and potentially dangerous.
Holy Alliance: A coalition formed in 1815 between Russia, Austria, and Prussia to uphold conservative, religiously framed principles and suppress revolutionary movements across Europe.
Britain declined to join, reflecting Castlereagh’s reluctance to commit Britain to reactionary continental policies. Instead, he preferred pragmatic agreements rooted in diplomacy rather than ideology.
The Limits of Castlereagh’s Diplomacy
Strains within the Congress System
Divergent interests among powers weakened the system.
Austria and Russia sought active intervention in domestic revolutions, while Castlereagh favoured restraint.
By 1822, Britain was increasingly isolated from continental allies.
Domestic Pressures
British politicians and the public grew wary of entanglements in Europe.
Economic pressures after the Napoleonic Wars limited enthusiasm for military commitments abroad.
The Legacy of Castlereagh’s Diplomacy
Castlereagh’s foreign policy from 1812 to 1822 ensured that Britain:
Preserved naval and imperial power without overstretching on the continent.
Helped craft a settlement at Vienna that lasted until the mid-century.
Maintained a cautious balance between cooperation and independence in diplomacy.
Although he faced criticism for his repressive domestic policies, abroad he earned respect for his statesmanship and contribution to European peace. His diplomacy laid the foundations of what became known as the Concert of Europe, which provided relative stability for decades after Napoleon’s fall.
FAQ
Castlereagh believed that excluding France would encourage hostility and potentially fuel renewed aggression. By bringing France back into the fold, particularly at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, he aimed to reduce resentment and embed it within the balance of power. This inclusive approach helped prevent the creation of an isolated and vengeful France.
Castlereagh saw the Congresses as opportunities for consultation and maintaining stability, but he did not want routine military intervention in states’ internal affairs.
By contrast, Metternich used the Congresses to justify Austrian intervention against liberal revolutions, especially in Italy and Germany. Castlereagh’s emphasis was pragmatic, focusing on Britain’s interests, while Metternich’s was ideological, defending conservatism.
Although Congress diplomacy centred on European affairs, Castlereagh ensured Britain consolidated gains overseas.
Britain retained strategic colonies like Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope.
These acquisitions strengthened trade routes to India and the Far East.
Castlereagh resisted continental expansion, preferring imperial consolidation as a safer means of extending British influence.
Castlereagh viewed the Holy Alliance as overly vague, sentimental, and rooted in Christian mysticism rather than pragmatic politics. He considered it unsuitable for guiding practical diplomacy.
Britain also feared becoming entangled in reactionary interventions that did not serve national interests. Instead, Castlereagh advocated for agreements based on clear political and strategic principles, not religious or moral ideals.
Castlereagh’s death created a vacuum in British foreign policy. His successor, George Canning, took a more liberal and independent approach, distancing Britain from conservative continental powers.
This marked the decline of the Congress System as originally envisaged. Britain shifted towards unilateral diplomacy, prioritising trade and overseas interests rather than regular consultation with Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What was the main aim of Castlereagh’s foreign policy during the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying balance of power as the aim.
1 mark for explaining it in context (e.g. preventing domination of Europe by one power, ensuring long-term stability).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how Castlereagh used the Congress System between 1815 and 1822 to manage European stability.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying that the Congress System was a framework for consultation between powers.
1 mark for mentioning inclusion of France at Aix-la-Chapelle (1818).
1 mark for noting Castlereagh’s resistance to intervention at Troppau (1820) and Laibach (1821).
1 mark for noting Britain’s reluctance at Verona (1822), distancing itself from continental intervention.
1 mark for explaining Castlereagh’s overall aim of avoiding revolutionary upheaval while preventing overreach by other powers.
1 mark for supporting detail (e.g. Castlereagh’s preference for balance of power, non-interference unless Britain’s interests were threatened).
