OCR Specification focus:
‘Canning 1822–1827, Holy Alliance, Spain, Portugal, Latin America and the Greek Question to 1830.’
Canning’s foreign policy between 1822 and 1830 was marked by a clear departure from the cautious conservatism of Castlereagh. His vision prioritised independent British diplomacy, often in opposition to the Holy Alliance, while actively engaging with developments in Spain, Portugal, Latin America, and the Greek Question. These years saw Britain assert itself as a liberalising force while also protecting vital strategic and commercial interests.
George Canning and His Foreign Policy Outlook
George Canning became Foreign Secretary in 1822 and later served briefly as Prime Minister in 1827. His foreign policy was shaped by a strong belief in British independence of action and scepticism towards European conservatism.
He distrusted the Holy Alliance (Russia, Austria, Prussia), which promoted reactionary intervention in Europe.
A locator map of the Holy Alliance, showing Austria, Prussia, and Russia as its members. This helps visualise the conservative bloc Canning resisted. Source
Canning emphasised trade, colonial connections, and preventing European domination of the New World.
His outlook was pragmatic: he sought to protect Britain’s global interests while also presenting Britain as a supporter of constitutional movements abroad.
Holy Alliance: A coalition formed in 1815 between Russia, Austria, and Prussia committed to preserving monarchies and suppressing revolution.
Canning positioned Britain as a counterweight to this alliance, carving out a distinct course in foreign policy.
Opposition to the Holy Alliance
The Holy Alliance aimed to suppress revolutions and preserve autocracy across Europe. Canning resisted its influence because:
Britain had no desire to interfere militarily in continental revolutions unless its direct interests were threatened.
Aligning with reactionary intervention conflicted with Britain’s liberal image and commercial priorities.
He feared Russia’s growing power, especially in the Balkans and Eastern Mediterranean.
Instead of cooperation, Canning pursued selective engagement and actively blocked the Alliance’s attempts to impose authority in Spain and its colonies.
Spain and Portugal
Canning’s attention focused on the Iberian Peninsula:
Spain: Internal conflict between liberals and absolutists drew the Holy Alliance into plans for intervention. France invaded in 1823 to restore King Ferdinand VII. Canning opposed Britain joining such interventions.
Portugal: After 1820, Portugal experienced liberal uprisings. When reaction threatened Portuguese constitutionalists in 1826, Canning dispatched troops to Lisbon, affirming Britain’s long-standing alliance with Portugal. This decision balanced support for constitutional government with protection of Britain’s strategic maritime partner.
By defending Portugal, Canning signalled that Britain would act when its historic interests aligned with liberal principles.
Latin America
One of Canning’s most significant legacies was Britain’s recognition of independence movements in Latin America. Between 1810 and 1825, many colonies broke from Spain.
The Holy Alliance sought to restore Spanish authority in the region.
Canning decisively opposed this, aligning Britain with the United States Monroe Doctrine (1823), which opposed European recolonisation in the Americas.
Britain formally recognised the independence of states such as Argentina, Colombia, and Mexico.
Map inset showing Latin America in 1825 after independence, with new republics recognised by Britain. This highlights Canning’s recognition policy and commercial motives. Extra details include indigenous names and earlier settlements not required by the syllabus. Source
This policy was motivated by both ideology and self-interest:
It promoted liberal independence from oppressive monarchies.
It opened vast new markets for British trade.
Canning famously declared that he had “called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old,” encapsulating his dual goals of liberty and national advantage.
Monroe Doctrine: A US policy declared in 1823 opposing European intervention in the independent states of the Americas.
Canning did not sign onto the Monroe Doctrine but shared its objectives, ensuring Britain gained a foothold in emerging markets.
The Greek Question
The Greek War of Independence (1821–1830) against Ottoman rule raised complex diplomatic challenges.
Russia was sympathetic to Orthodox Greece and tempted to intervene militarily against the Ottomans.
Britain, wary of both Ottoman collapse and unchecked Russian expansion, had to tread carefully.
Initially cautious, Canning gradually supported mediation between Greece and the Ottomans, leading to the Treaty of London (1827), where Britain, France, and Russia agreed to guarantee Greek autonomy.
This resulted in the Battle of Navarino (1827), when allied fleets destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian navy.
Contemporary plan of the Battle of Navarino, showing Allied fleet entry, Ottoman-Egyptian positions, and wind direction. This illustrates the naval clash that safeguarded Greek independence. Source
While unplanned, this ensured the survival of Greek independence and boosted Britain’s moral authority.
Canning’s handling of the Greek Question highlighted his balancing act between liberal sympathy for nationalism and pragmatic fears of Russian dominance.
Canning’s Legacy in Foreign Policy
Canning’s foreign policy was both assertive and pragmatic:
He resisted the reactionary Holy Alliance, ensuring Britain retained freedom of action.
He safeguarded Portugal and encouraged liberalism where it suited British interests.
He championed Latin American independence, securing economic advantages.
He carefully managed the Greek Question, preventing Russian hegemony while aiding national liberation.
Overall, Canning strengthened Britain’s commercial supremacy, promoted a more liberal international image, and established a tradition of independent diplomacy that shaped foreign policy beyond 1830.
FAQ
Canning distrusted the interventionist policies of the Holy Alliance, believing they undermined British independence. Unlike Castlereagh, who tolerated cooperation for stability, Canning saw continental conservatism as a threat to Britain’s liberal reputation and expanding trade opportunities.
By recognising new republics early, Britain secured favourable trade agreements.
British merchants gained dominant access to raw materials like silver, sugar, and coffee.
London became the hub for Latin American loans and investment.
This established Britain as the region’s chief trading partner throughout the nineteenth century.
Portugal was a long-standing ally, central to Britain’s naval control of Atlantic trade routes.
Supporting Portuguese constitutionalists allowed Canning to:
Defend Britain’s strategic influence at Lisbon and the Tagus estuary.
Signal opposition to French or Holy Alliance interference.
Thus, Portugal was both a liberal cause and a practical safeguard.
Although it secured Greek independence, the battle was not fully intended.
The destruction of the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet risked destabilising the Ottoman Empire.
Critics feared it empowered Russia’s ambitions in the Balkans.
Some in Britain viewed it as an accidental escalation rather than carefully controlled diplomacy.
Both powers sympathised with Greece but for different reasons.
Britain wanted limited autonomy for Greece without dismantling Ottoman stability.
Russia sought stronger Greek independence, potentially extending Russian influence in the Mediterranean.
This tension foreshadowed later rivalries over the Eastern Question in the nineteenth century.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Which three countries formed the Holy Alliance that Canning opposed in the 1820s?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying each country (maximum 2 marks).
Russia (1 mark)
Austria (1 mark)
Prussia (no additional mark since maximum 2 marks available)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how Canning’s policy towards Latin America served both ideological and economic purposes.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 2 marks for ideological purposes:
Recognition of independence movements demonstrated support for liberal and constitutional governments (1 mark).
Alignment with the Monroe Doctrine against European recolonisation (1 mark).
Up to 2 marks for economic purposes:
Securing access to new markets in Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, and other states (1 mark).
Enhancing Britain’s commercial supremacy by excluding Spanish dominance (1 mark).
Up to 2 additional marks for well-developed explanation and linkage:
Explains how Canning’s ideological stance also reinforced British trade interests (1 mark).
Links Britain’s independent foreign policy to both liberal reputation and practical advantage (1 mark).
Maximum: 6 marks.
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