OCR Specification focus:
‘Relations with other wartime leaders (Roosevelt, Stalin and de Gaulle); contribution to international conferences.’
Britain’s wartime survival and eventual victory owed much to Winston Churchill’s diplomatic skill in forging strong alliances, managing tensions, and shaping international conferences.
Churchill and Allied Relations
Relations with Franklin D. Roosevelt
Churchill placed enormous importance on the Anglo-American alliance. He cultivated a close personal and professional relationship with President Franklin D. Roosevelt, which became the cornerstone of Allied cooperation.
Churchill emphasised shared ideals of democracy and freedom, portraying the alliance as a partnership of equals.
The signing of the Atlantic Charter (August 1941) established joint principles, including self-determination, freer trade, and collective security.
Roosevelt’s willingness to extend Lend-Lease aid (1941) enabled Britain to sustain its war effort, deepening interdependence.
Despite disagreements—such as over the timing of the Second Front—Churchill’s persistence ensured Anglo-American cooperation remained intact.
Lend-Lease: A US policy, introduced in 1941, providing military and economic aid to Britain and later other Allied nations, without immediate payment.
Churchill’s personal diplomacy with Roosevelt was vital; frequent communication by telegram and meetings at conferences helped maintain trust even when military priorities diverged.
Relations with Joseph Stalin
The alliance with the Soviet Union was strained by ideological differences and mutual suspicion. Churchill disliked communism but recognised the necessity of collaboration.
From 1941, after Hitler invaded the USSR, Churchill sent aid to the Soviets despite domestic criticism.
Tensions centred on the Soviet demand for a Second Front in Western Europe, which Churchill delayed until 1944, preferring Mediterranean campaigns first.
At the Moscow Conference (1944), Churchill’s so-called “Percentages Agreement” attempted to divide Eastern Europe into spheres of influence, reflecting pragmatic diplomacy.
His efforts to balance appeasing Stalin while protecting British influence highlighted the difficulties of wartime diplomacy.
Percentages Agreement: An informal 1944 understanding between Churchill and Stalin outlining the division of influence in Eastern European countries after the war, expressed as percentages of control.
While cooperation continued through necessity, underlying mistrust between Britain and the USSR foreshadowed post-war tensions.
Relations with Charles de Gaulle
Relations with Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French, were far more contentious.
Churchill initially supported de Gaulle’s claim to lead Free France, but friction grew over de Gaulle’s uncompromising independence.
The US distrusted de Gaulle, preferring Vichy collaborators, which left Churchill mediating awkward disputes.
Churchill often grew exasperated at de Gaulle’s perceived arrogance, yet he recognised the importance of preserving France as a future European power.
This relationship illustrates Churchill’s willingness to endure personal difficulties for strategic stability.
Churchill and de Gaulle inspect Free French troops at Marrakesh in January 1944, highlighting their often strained but strategically vital partnership. Source
Churchill and International Conferences
The Atlantic Charter (1941)
The Atlantic Charter marked Churchill’s first major international agreement with Roosevelt. Its principles inspired the later creation of the United Nations, setting a moral foundation for the Allied cause.
Churchill and Roosevelt confer aboard USS Augusta during the Atlantic Charter conference of August 1941, where they framed Allied principles for the war and post-war order. Source
The Casablanca Conference (1943)
Held in Morocco, Churchill and Roosevelt agreed upon:
Unconditional surrender of Axis powers as the war aim.
Planning the invasion of Sicily and Italy to knock Italy out of the war.
Supporting the Free French leadership dispute, though tensions with de Gaulle persisted.
The Tehran Conference (1943)
Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met for the first time together:
Stalin pressed for an early Second Front, leading to the agreement for Operation Overlord (D-Day) in 1944.
Churchill pushed for Mediterranean operations, but was largely overruled by Roosevelt and Stalin.
It marked the beginning of Britain’s reduced influence as US-Soviet cooperation grew.
The Yalta Conference (February 1945)
At Yalta, the “Big Three” made significant decisions:
Germany to be divided into occupation zones.
Plans for the establishment of the United Nations.
USSR’s agreement to enter war against Japan after Germany’s defeat.
Controversial agreements over Eastern Europe, particularly Poland, where Churchill struggled to prevent Soviet dominance.
United Nations: An international organisation founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation among nations, succeeding the failed League of Nations.
Churchill saw Yalta as a mixture of achievement and compromise, recognising Britain’s declining ability to restrain Soviet ambitions.
The Potsdam Conference (July 1945)
Although Churchill attended initially, he was replaced by Clement Attlee after the British general election. Key features included:
Finalisation of Germany’s demilitarisation and denazification.
Growing strain between the Allies, particularly between Truman (Roosevelt’s successor) and Stalin.
Churchill’s limited role at this stage reflected Britain’s declining influence compared with the USA and USSR.
Overall Importance of Conferences
Churchill’s contribution to wartime conferences was characterised by:
Shaping early Allied principles (Atlantic Charter).
Balancing fragile relations among leaders with competing aims.
Maintaining Britain’s voice in decision-making, even as US and Soviet power grew.
His diplomatic skill ensured Britain’s survival in the war and laid foundations for the post-war order, though at the cost of diminished global influence.
FAQ
Although agreed between Churchill and Roosevelt, the Charter became a symbolic declaration of Allied unity.
It was broadcast worldwide, offering hope to occupied nations under Axis control. Its principles also influenced emerging independence movements in colonies, who saw “self-determination” as an endorsement of decolonisation—though this was not Churchill’s intention.
Churchill resisted opening a Second Front in France before 1944, preferring Mediterranean campaigns to weaken Axis forces in North Africa and Italy.
He worried Britain lacked resources for a successful invasion and feared high casualties. Stalin saw this as deliberate stalling, deepening mistrust, which Churchill tried to offset by sending supplies and visiting Moscow to maintain goodwill.
Churchill valued personal rapport, cultivating frequent correspondence and even staying at the White House.
This closeness allowed Britain early access to American military planning. Yet Roosevelt sometimes used the relationship to steer Churchill towards US priorities, such as supporting Operation Overlord over Mediterranean alternatives.
De Gaulle insisted on Free French independence from both Britain and the USA, refusing to be treated as a subordinate.
Churchill admired his determination but found him obstinate and ungrateful. Despite tensions, Churchill knew excluding France would weaken Allied legitimacy in Europe, so he tolerated the difficulties to maintain broader unity.
Churchill supported Roosevelt’s vision, seeing it as a way to secure peace and maintain Britain’s global role.
At Yalta, he agreed to Soviet participation in exchange for commitments on voting rights. He also pushed for France to be included as a permanent member of the Security Council, hoping this would check Soviet and American dominance in post-war Europe.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name two Allied leaders, other than Churchill, with whom he worked closely during the Second World War.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correct leader identified (maximum 2 marks).
Acceptable answers: Franklin D. Roosevelt, Joseph Stalin, Charles de Gaulle.
Do not award marks for incorrect names or vague references such as “the Americans” or “the Russians.”
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how Churchill’s relations with either Roosevelt or Stalin influenced decisions taken at wartime conferences.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Generalised statements with limited detail. May mention cooperation without specific conference examples. E.g. “Churchill worked with Roosevelt to win the war.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation with partial reference to a specific conference or decision. E.g. “Churchill and Roosevelt agreed the Atlantic Charter which set out war aims.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Developed explanation showing clear knowledge of the relationship and how it shaped decisions at a specific conference. Accurate and relevant detail. E.g. “At the Tehran Conference in 1943, Churchill’s alliance with Roosevelt and Stalin led to the decision to launch Operation Overlord in 1944, even though Churchill preferred Mediterranean operations.”
Marks are awarded for:
Identifying which leader is being discussed (Roosevelt or Stalin).
Clear explanation of how Churchill’s relationship with that leader influenced decisions.
Accurate reference to at least one conference and its outcomes.
