OCR Specification focus:
‘reasons and changing motives for war; wars against the Saxons’
Charlemagne’s long wars against the Saxons were central to the shaping of his reign. His motives for war shifted over time, combining politics, expansion, religion, and security.
Reasons for War
Political Security
When Charlemagne became sole ruler of the Franks in 771, he faced the challenge of securing his realm. The Saxons, an independent pagan people to the north-east, posed a persistent threat through frequent raids across the Frankish border.
Map of the Frankish realm’s growth (481–814) with Saxony clearly marked on the north-eastern frontier. It shows why controlling Saxony mattered for security and communications across central Europe. The map includes wider Frankish conquests beyond the Saxon theatre, which provide useful context. Source
Protecting the Frankish frontier was therefore a central political concern.
The wars were a means of neutralising this danger by absorbing the Saxons into the Carolingian realm.
Expansion of Frankish Authority
The Saxon lands were strategically valuable. Their conquest allowed Charlemagne to:
Extend Frankish control over central Europe.
Secure routes linking Francia to the Elbe.
Establish stronger authority over semi-independent frontier regions.
This expansion not only defended the realm but also strengthened the prestige of the Carolingian monarchy.
Dynastic Motives
Early wars also reflected dynastic ambitions. Victory in war was a way for Charlemagne to prove himself a capable leader and strengthen his claim as the rightful ruler of the Franks, particularly after the death of his brother Carloman in 771. The conquest of new lands was an effective method to display his legitimacy.
Changing Motives over Time
Religious Justifications
At first, wars were largely defensive and political, but they increasingly gained a religious dimension.
Charlemagne portrayed himself as defender of the Christian faith against pagan peoples. The Saxons’ stubborn adherence to paganism and resistance to conversion provided justification for long campaigns.
Christianisation: The process of converting non-Christian peoples to the Christian faith, often enforced through both persuasion and coercion
The wars became a form of holy mission: to spread Christianity and to suppress pagan practices that challenged Frankish religious identity.
Punitive and Retributive Motives
Charlemagne’s wars were also motivated by retribution. Saxon uprisings were frequent, and punishments became increasingly severe. For example:
Mass executions, such as those at Verdun in 782, were designed to terrify the Saxons into submission.
The destruction of their sacred sites demonstrated both religious and political dominance.
Thus, punishment became not only retributive but also symbolic of Frankish superiority.
Consolidation of Empire
By the later stages of the Saxon wars, the motive shifted towards consolidation. Charlemagne sought not just conquest but permanent integration of the Saxons into the empire.
He implemented administrative structures in Saxony.
Conversion was enforced through capitularies (royal decrees) that legislated Christian practices.
The wars were part of a broader vision to unify the Carolingian empire under common law, faith, and loyalty.
Wars Against the Saxons
Outbreak and First Campaigns (772–775)
The wars began in 772 when Charlemagne invaded Saxony, destroyed the Irminsul (a major pagan shrine), and claimed the land for the Franks.
The act was both a military victory and a symbolic strike against pagan religion.
Campaigns were aimed at securing fortified positions along the frontier.
Periods of Rebellion and Brutality (776–785)
The Saxons resisted fiercely, often rebelling after initial submission. Their leader Widukind organised large-scale uprisings.
In 782, after Saxon attacks, Charlemagne ordered the mass execution at Verdun, illustrating the brutal determination to end resistance.
By 785, Widukind submitted and accepted baptism, marking a temporary halt to rebellion.
Victorian engraving of Charlemagne at Widukind’s baptism. It visualises the political submission expressed through a religious rite, reinforcing how conquest and conversion were intertwined in the Saxon wars. Artistic details reflect 19th-century style rather than 8th-century dress. Source
Renewed Campaigns and Final Subjugation (790s–804)
Despite earlier submissions, Saxon uprisings continued through the 790s. Charlemagne responded with campaigns of devastating force:
Forced deportations of rebellious groups.
Settlement of Franks in Saxon territories to secure control.
Systematic Christianisation through monasteries and missionary activity.
By 804, after more than 30 years of intermittent war, the Saxons were finally brought under lasting Frankish control.
Methods of Conducting the Wars
Military Organisation
Charlemagne’s armies employed standard Carolingian military methods:
Annual campaigns led by the king in person.
Use of mounted warriors (cavalry) supported by infantry levies.
Siege warfare against fortified Saxon strongholds.
Religious Weaponry
The wars were also fought with symbolism:
Baptism and church construction were imposed in conquered areas.
Pagan sites were destroyed to undermine Saxon identity.
Law and Administration
Enforcement of conversion was backed by Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae (c. 782), a legal code that prescribed severe penalties, including death, for pagan practices. This legal warfare reinforced Frankish military power with spiritual authority.
Key Outcomes
The wars transformed the Carolingian realm into a powerful Christian empire.
Motives evolved from frontier defence to religious mission and ultimately to imperial consolidation.
The Saxon wars set a precedent for later medieval rulers combining warfare with the duty of Christianisation.
FAQ
Widukind emerged as the most significant Saxon leader, uniting fragmented tribes against Charlemagne. His use of guerrilla tactics, knowledge of the terrain, and ability to inspire rebellion allowed resistance to continue even after defeats.
His repeated flights to Danish territory also showed the interconnectedness of Saxon resistance with neighbouring powers, complicating Charlemagne’s attempts at permanent conquest.
The Saxons had strong traditions of independence and local tribal loyalty, which made long-term submission difficult.
Their decentralised political structure allowed small groups to continue resisting even after major defeats.
Pagan religious identity was deeply tied to social customs, making forced conversion highly unpopular.
Harsh punishments, such as executions and deportations, often created resentment rather than compliance.
Saxon lands were heavily forested and mountainous in places, with rivers forming natural defensive barriers.
This made large Frankish cavalry forces less effective and slowed campaigning. It also allowed the Saxons to use ambushes and guerrilla warfare, often striking during winter when Frankish armies dispersed.
The geography partly explains why campaigns dragged on for over three decades.
The Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae introduced strict laws linking religion with obedience to Frankish rule.
Death penalty for pagan sacrifices.
Severe punishments for refusing baptism.
Obligations to pay church dues and attend services.
These measures aimed to integrate Saxons into the Christian empire but also provoked resistance due to their severity.
Charlemagne’s prolonged campaigns against the Saxons enhanced his image as a Christian warrior-king.
His reputation grew among the papacy and other Christian rulers, reinforcing his role as protector of the Church.
However, the brutality of his methods, such as the massacre at Verdun, also caused controversy, with some contemporaries questioning the morality of forced conversion.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name one reason why Charlemagne began his wars against the Saxons in 772 and one way in which these motives changed over time.
Mark Scheme
1 mark for identifying an initial reason (e.g. to defend Frankish borders against Saxon raids, to expand Frankish authority, to demonstrate dynastic legitimacy).
1 mark for identifying a later motive (e.g. spreading Christianity, punishing rebellion, enforcing consolidation of the empire).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two ways in which religion influenced Charlemagne’s wars against the Saxons.
Mark Scheme
Award up to 3 marks per explanation, depending on depth and development.
1 mark for a valid point, 2 marks for a point with some supporting detail, 3 marks for a fully developed explanation with context.
Examples:
Religion justified the wars: Charlemagne presented the campaigns as a holy mission to convert the pagan Saxons to Christianity (up to 3 marks depending on depth).
Religion shaped methods of war: sacred pagan sites such as the Irminsul were destroyed and baptisms enforced, illustrating the fusion of conquest with Christianisation (up to 3 marks depending on depth).
