OCR Specification focus:
‘the destruction of the Irminsul, Danes, Avars, the destruction of the ring, Lombards, Pavia, Slavs, Muslim Spain, Barcelona and Basque ambitions, Roncasvelles, Byzantines; methods of warfare’
Charlemagne’s wars were marked by both brutality and innovation. His campaigns against diverse peoples highlight the shifting strategies of Frankish conquest and the evolving methods of warfare.
The Destruction of the Irminsul
The Irminsul was a sacred Saxon tree or pillar, believed to represent the cosmic axis of their religion. Its destruction in 772 symbolised Charlemagne’s determination to impose Christian dominance over pagan traditions.
The act was both spiritual warfare and political strategy.
Destroying the Irminsul undermined Saxon identity and resistance.
This was part of Charlemagne’s broader campaign to integrate Saxony into the Frankish realm.
Nineteenth-century historical illustration of Charlemagne’s troops toppling the Irminsul. Although produced long after the event, it visualises the symbolic demolition that marked the coercive turn in the Saxon wars. Source
Irminsul: A sacred pillar of the Saxons, destroyed by Charlemagne in 772 as part of his campaign to eradicate pagan religion.
Wars Against the Danes and Avars
Charlemagne’s northern border faced the Danes, whose raiding culture posed a threat.
His campaigns sought to stabilise the borderlands through fortifications and diplomatic pressure.
The Avars, based in the Carpathian Basin, presented a different challenge.
Their fortress, the so-called “Ring of the Avars”, was a great treasure-holding encampment.
In the 790s, Frankish campaigns successfully destroyed this centre, gaining immense wealth.
The fall of the Avars demonstrated the logistical strength of the Carolingian army and their ability to project power across vast distances.
Wars in Italy: Lombards and Pavia
Charlemagne’s Italian campaigns were crucial for his image as defender of the Church.
In 773–774, he besieged Pavia, the Lombard capital, and captured it after a prolonged campaign.
By taking the Lombard crown, Charlemagne became King of the Lombards, expanding Frankish influence in Italy.
Control over Italy strengthened ties with the Papacy and projected his authority as a ruler of Christian Europe.
Campaigns in the East: Slavs
The Slavs along the eastern frontier were fragmented peoples.
Campaigns against them focused on asserting Frankish dominance through tribute and military intimidation.
Unlike with the Saxons, the aim was less about conversion and more about establishing buffer zones against external threats.
Campaigns in Spain: Muslim Spain and Barcelona
In 778, Charlemagne attempted to expand into Muslim Spain, responding to the invitation of rebellious Muslim leaders.
The expedition culminated in the capture of Barcelona in 801, establishing a foothold south of the Pyrenees.
However, his earlier expedition in 778 ended disastrously at Roncesvalles (Roncasvelles), where the Basques ambushed the Frankish rear guard.
Map of the Iberian Peninsula c. 814 highlighting the Marca Hispánica, Barcelona, and neighbouring polities. It contextualises Frankish strategy south of the Pyrenees and the geography of Vasconia, clarifying the setting for the Roncesvalles (778) ambush. Source
Battle of Roncesvalles (778): A Frankish defeat where Basque forces ambushed Charlemagne’s army, killing Roland and other nobles.
This battle, though minor strategically, became legendary in the later “Song of Roland”, illustrating the interplay of history and myth in Charlemagne’s legacy.
Relations with Byzantines
Charlemagne’s expansion into Italy and the Mediterranean often brought him into conflict with the Byzantine Empire.
Byzantines regarded themselves as the legitimate heirs of Rome and were wary of Frankish claims.
Warfare with Byzantine forces was limited but tensions persisted, particularly over control of southern Italy.
Charlemagne’s eventual imperial coronation in 800 worsened this rivalry, as Byzantium initially rejected his claim to be “Emperor”.
Methods of Warfare
Charlemagne’s campaigns reveal evolving Frankish military methods that blended traditional and innovative strategies.
Composition of the Army
Based on feudal levies of free men and vassals.
Supported by mounted cavalry, increasingly dominant in Carolingian warfare.
Infantry remained important for sieges and holding ground.
Feudal Levy: Obligation of landholders to provide military service or armed men to their overlord, forming the backbone of Frankish armies.
Siege Warfare
Central to Frankish conquests, as seen at Pavia.
Use of siege engines, starvation tactics, and psychological pressure.
Demonstrated increasing sophistication compared with earlier Germanic warfare.
Frontier Defence and Fortifications
Construction of fortified border zones along Saxon and Danish frontiers.
Fortifications not only defended territory but served as bases for launching campaigns.
Religious Justification and Psychological Warfare
Charlemagne’s wars were framed as holy wars against pagans or enemies of the Church.
The destruction of sacred sites, forced baptisms, and Christianisation of conquered peoples were weapons as much as swords and spears.
Mobility and Logistics
Armies were expected to move rapidly across wide areas, from Spain to the Danube.
Charlemagne established supply bases and maintained roads to ensure sustained campaigning.
Miniature from the Golden Psalter of St Gall (Cod. Sang. 22, p. 140) showing cavalry in Carolingian style (horse gear, shields, spears, standard-bearer). Though the biblical scene depicts Joab, the artists intentionally rendered contemporary Frankish arms and dress, making it a valuable visual source for Carolingian warfare. Source
The Role of Ambition
Charlemagne’s wars were not only defensive but often fuelled by personal and dynastic ambition.
Expansion into Spain and campaigns against the Avars brought prestige and wealth.
Subjugation of the Saxons demonstrated his vision of empire and consolidation of Frankish power.
Military success underpinned his political image and legitimacy as ruler.
These campaigns, from the destruction of the Irminsul to the capture of Barcelona, illustrate the interplay of conquest, religion, and evolving warfare in Charlemagne’s reign.
FAQ
The Irminsul was more than a religious object; it symbolised Saxon cultural independence and tribal unity. Its destruction not only attacked their faith but also struck at their political cohesion.
By removing it, Charlemagne weakened a shared symbol that rallied resistance, making it harder for the Saxons to organise prolonged opposition
The ‘Ring’ was both a military stronghold and the treasury of the Avar khaganate.
Its destruction provided Charlemagne with enormous booty, which he distributed to his followers, strengthening loyalty.
The fall of the Ring also demonstrated that Charlemagne’s forces could dismantle a seemingly impregnable fortress, projecting psychological dominance
While a setback, the defeat had limited strategic impact. However, its cultural resonance was profound.
The death of key nobles, like Roland, fuelled epic poetry that later exaggerated the event into a clash with Muslims. This shaped Charlemagne’s image as a Christian hero, despite the reality that it was a Basque ambush.
Mountain ranges such as the Pyrenees and the Alps shaped military operations.
Narrow passes like Roncesvalles exposed armies to ambush.
In Italy, the Po Valley enabled large-scale sieges like at Pavia.
Geography often dictated the speed, supply routes, and vulnerabilities of Frankish armies.
Military victory was followed by policies to secure long-term control.
Enforcing Christianity through baptisms and destruction of pagan sites.
Establishing fortified settlements and garrisons.
Relocating populations or demanding tribute to weaken resistance.
This combination of force and integration helped transform conquests into lasting parts of the Carolingian realm.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What was the Irminsul, and why did Charlemagne destroy it in 772?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying what the Irminsul was (e.g. a sacred Saxon pillar/tree of pagan worship).
1 mark for explaining why Charlemagne destroyed it (e.g. to suppress pagan religion and impose Christianity, or as a symbolic act of conquest).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two methods of warfare used by Charlemagne in his campaigns between 768 and 814.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each method, with explanation.
Award 1 mark for identifying a method (e.g. siege warfare, use of heavy cavalry, fortified frontiers, psychological/religious warfare).
Award 1 additional mark for explaining how the method worked (e.g. siege engines/starvation at Pavia; use of mounted knights for rapid mobility; fortified zones along Saxon frontier).
Award 1 further mark for linking the method to Charlemagne’s broader military success (e.g. siege tactics enabled conquest of Lombard Pavia; cavalry gave flexibility to fight across wide regions; destruction of sacred sites demoralised pagan resistance).
Maximum: 6 marks.
