OCR Specification focus:
‘Luther’s ideas and publications and the printing press; Papal excommunication (1520–1521), the Diet of Worms, in hiding in the Wartburg; Luther’s relations with radicals and humanists, the Knights’ and Peasants’’
Introduction
Martin Luther’s ideas reshaped the religious and political landscape of early sixteenth-century Europe. His publications, opposition to Rome, and use of the printing press revolutionised communication and belief.
Luther’s Early Ideas and Publications
Luther’s initial challenge to the Catholic Church centred on the sale of indulgences, which he viewed as a corruption of true Christian doctrine. His famous Ninety-Five Theses of 1517 attacked the practice and ignited debate across the Holy Roman Empire.
In 1517–1518, Luther’s writings moved rapidly from academic disputes to radical calls for reform.
Central themes included justification by faith alone and the authority of Scripture above papal decree.
His works such as Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (1520) and On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520) outlined a theological programme that sought to diminish clerical authority and empower lay believers.
Justification by Faith Alone: The belief that salvation comes solely through faith in Christ, not through good works or the mediation of the Church.
These ideas were inherently threatening to the Roman Catholic hierarchy, undermining its sacramental and institutional authority.
The Printing Press and the Spread of Ideas
The printing press was crucial in transforming Luther’s movement from a local protest into a European-wide challenge.
Printers in cities such as Wittenberg, Nuremberg, and Augsburg reproduced Luther’s pamphlets in large numbers.
His writings were often short, accessible, and written in German vernacular, making them suitable for a wide audience.
Illustrations and woodcuts, particularly by Lucas Cranach the Elder, visually reinforced the messages.
By 1520–1525, Luther had become the most published author in Europe. The speed and scale of printing ensured that his message spread beyond academic and clerical circles to the laity and urban classes.
Papal Excommunication and the Diet of Worms (1520–1521)
In 1520, Pope Leo X issued the bull Exsurge Domine, condemning Luther’s propositions and threatening excommunication unless he recanted. Luther responded defiantly, burning the bull in public.
Karl Aspelin’s painting shows Martin Luther burning the papal bull Exsurge Domine in Wittenberg (1520), symbolising defiance of papal authority and foreshadowing his excommunication. Source
In January 1521, Luther was formally excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church.
He was summoned to appear before the Diet of Worms, an imperial assembly convened by Charles V.
At Worms, Luther refused to retract his writings, famously declaring that his conscience was bound by the Word of God. This stance marked a turning point: Luther was now not only a theological dissenter but also an outlaw within the Empire.
Excommunication: The formal exclusion of an individual from participation in the sacraments and community of the Roman Catholic Church.
Charles V issued the Edict of Worms, outlawing Luther and banning his works. However, political realities prevented full enforcement across the fragmented Empire.
Hiding in the Wartburg and Continued Writings
After Worms, Luther was taken into protective custody by Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony. He lived in disguise at the Wartburg Castle (1521–1522).
During this period, Luther translated the New Testament into German, a monumental achievement that allowed ordinary believers to access scripture directly.
The title page of Luther’s 1522 German New Testament reflects his aim to make scripture accessible. Printed in Wittenberg, it highlights the importance of vernacular print culture. Source
He also continued to write, producing treatises that developed his theology and encouraged reform.
The translation emphasised clarity and accessibility, shaping both German language and religious culture.
Luther’s Relations with Radicals and Humanists
Luther’s influence extended across diverse groups, though his relationships were often fraught.
Radicals
Some reformers, such as Thomas Müntzer and the Zwickau Prophets, pushed for more extreme measures, including social revolution and the rejection of traditional worship forms.
Luther distanced himself from these radicals, insisting on orderly reform and condemning violence.
His conservative stance on authority alienated some who wished for more sweeping societal change.
Humanists
Luther’s use of clear language and biblical scholarship attracted sympathy from humanists like Erasmus of Rotterdam. However, relations soured over theological disputes, particularly concerning the nature of free will.
Erasmus emphasised human reason and moderation.
Luther argued for the bondage of the will to sin, leading to sharp disagreement by 1524–1525.
The Knights’ Revolt and Peasants’ War
Luther’s ideas inadvertently inspired social unrest. Discontented groups interpreted his call for reform as justification for challenging social and political hierarchies.
The Knights’ Revolt (1522–1523), led by Franz von Sickingen, sought to weaken ecclesiastical territories. It was quickly suppressed.
The Peasants’ War (1524–1525) was far more widespread, as peasants demanded relief from feudal burdens, often invoking Luther’s message of Christian freedom.
At first sympathetic, Luther later condemned the peasants when the revolt turned violent. His tract Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants urged brutal suppression, damaging his reputation among the lower classes but securing support from the princes.
Conclusion of this Phase
By 1529, Luther had established himself as the central figure of a movement that was both religious and political. His ideas, publications, and strategic use of the printing press, combined with dramatic events such as his excommunication and defiance at the Diet of Worms, ensured that the Reformation could not be contained within traditional ecclesiastical boundaries. His uneasy alliances and conflicts with radicals, humanists, knights, and peasants demonstrated both the broad appeal and the divisive consequences of his teachings.
FAQ
Luther aimed to reach ordinary laypeople, not just the educated elite who read Latin. By using vernacular German, he empowered citizens to engage with theology directly.
This move also aligned with the wider humanist emphasis on returning to original sources and promoting clarity in language. Vernacular works gained popularity quickly, aided by urban literacy levels and the printing press.
At first, Leo X underestimated Luther’s significance, dismissing him as a quarrelsome monk.
Efforts to silence Luther included summoning him to Rome in 1518 and engaging theologians such as Johannes Eck in debate.
Only after the 1520 pamphlets—attacking papal authority—did Leo act decisively, issuing Exsurge Domine to threaten excommunication.
Frederick the Wise shielded Luther during critical moments, despite remaining Catholic himself.
He refused to hand Luther over after the Diet of Worms.
He arranged Luther’s ‘kidnapping’ and safe hiding in Wartburg Castle.
Frederick valued autonomy from imperial and papal authority, seeing Luther’s survival as politically advantageous.
His protection ensured Luther could continue writing and translating during exile.
Humanist printers were already skilled at producing classical and reformist texts. They recognised Luther’s writings as both popular and profitable.
They standardised pamphlet formats for easy circulation.
They distributed works across major German cities, linking regional audiences.
Humanist sympathisers provided editing, prefaces, and stylistic polish.
These networks allowed Luther’s message to circulate swiftly, even beyond Germany.
Peasants initially viewed Luther’s emphasis on Christian freedom as a justification for challenging feudal oppression.
When violence spread, Luther condemned the revolt and urged rulers to suppress it harshly. His pamphlet Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants shocked many who had hoped for reform aligned with social justice.
This hardened perception of Luther as aligned with princes rather than common people, weakening his support among the lower classes.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What was the name of the papal bull issued in 1520 that condemned Martin Luther’s ideas?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying the papal bull as Exsurge Domine.
1 additional mark for stating it was issued in 1520 by Pope Leo X.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two ways in which the printing press contributed to the spread of Luther’s ideas between 1517 and 1525.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each explanation (2 marks for a valid point, 1 additional mark for development).
Points may include:
Printers reproduced Luther’s pamphlets in large numbers, making his ideas widely accessible (2 marks). Developed answer: noting their distribution in major cities such as Wittenberg, Augsburg, or Nuremberg (1 mark).
Use of German vernacular in printed works allowed ordinary people to understand his theology (2 marks). Developed answer: reference to the September Testament translation or simple language in pamphlets (1 mark).
Illustrations and woodcuts reinforced messages visually, making them more accessible to less literate audiences (2 marks). Developed answer: mention of Lucas Cranach’s role in producing imagery that supported Luther’s arguments (1 mark).
Maximum: 6 marks.
