The mid-fifteenth century in the Sahel was a time of shifting political authority, trade expansion, and religious diversity. Out of these circumstances, the Songhay Empire emerged.

The Situation in Sahelian Africa c.1450

Geographic and Economic Context

The Sahel is the transitional region between the Sahara Desert to the north and the savannah grasslands to the south. In c.1450, it was a hub of movement and cultural exchange. The region was dominated by trade across the Trans-Saharan routes, which linked North Africa and the Islamic world with West Africa’s goldfields. Towns such as Timbuktu and Gao were already thriving as trading centres, drawing merchants, clerics, and travellers.

Map of major Trans-Saharan caravan routes (c.1000–1500) showing goldfields and hubs such as Timbuktu and Gao. It illustrates trade corridors before and during Songhay’s rise. Source

• Gold and salt were the most important commodities. Gold came from the forests and mines of West Africa, while salt was quarried in the Sahara.

• Agricultural communities in the Sahel supported trade cities with food supplies such as millet and rice.

• This economic vitality created competition among regional powers to control taxation, trade routes, and tribute.

Political Fragmentation

By the mid-fifteenth century, the Mali Empire, which had dominated the region since the thirteenth century, was in decline. Its internal problems included:

• Succession disputes weakening central authority.

• Growing autonomy of vassal states and provincial governors.

• Declining ability to protect long-distance trade routes.

This decline created opportunities for emerging states, especially Songhay, centred around Gao on the Niger River.

Religious and Cultural Dynamics

Islam had spread widely through trade and contact with North Africa. However, traditional religious practices remained influential among many communities, particularly in rural areas. This duality created a society in which both Islamic clerics and traditional leaders coexisted, competing for legitimacy and influence.

Reasons for the Rise of the Songhay Empire

Strategic Location

Songhay’s heartland lay around the great bend of the Niger River, an ideal site for trade, agriculture, and military control. Gao was positioned to dominate both riverine and trans-Saharan commerce, making it an essential power base.

Military Success and Use of Cavalry

The Songhay rise was closely linked to military power. Its rulers built a reputation for decisive campaigns.

• The use of cavalry was especially critical. Horses, imported from North Africa, allowed Songhay armies to strike rapidly and dominate open Sahelian plains.

• Cavalry was supported by infantry, particularly archers, who could engage in more static warfare along river crossings and fortified towns.

• Military victories over rivals such as the Tuareg and remnants of Mali’s provincial forces expanded Songhay territory.

The success of Songhay’s cavalry created an aura of invincibility and made expansion possible across the fragmented Sahelian landscape.

Collapse of the Mali Empire

The weakening of Mali created a power vacuum that Songhay leaders exploited. By challenging Mali’s remaining authority over trade centres, Songhay presented itself as the natural successor in the region. Cities like Timbuktu and Djenné were brought under its influence, undermining Mali’s control of the lucrative trans-Saharan trade.

Key Figures: Sonni Ali

One of the most important catalysts for Songhay’s rise was Sonni Ali (r.1464–1492). He transformed the kingdom of Songhay into a formidable empire.

• Sonni Ali conquered Timbuktu in 1468, establishing Songhay authority over the prestigious centre of trade and Islamic learning.

View of Sankore Mosque, Timbuktu, part of the city’s renowned scholarly complex. Its distinctive earthen architecture illustrates Timbuktu’s intellectual prestige, which Songhay rulers sought to control. Source

• He captured Djenné in 1473, another vital trade hub.

• His reign was characterised by both military conquest and consolidation of power.

• Though he used Islam for political legitimacy, he also tolerated and maintained traditional religious practices, strengthening support from different social groups.

Internal Strength and Political Authority

The Songhay rulers established control not only through conquest but also through effective political authority.

• Centralised rule in Gao reinforced the image of a powerful monarchy.

• By controlling major trade centres, rulers ensured the flow of wealth into the imperial treasury.

• Tribute and taxation from conquered territories reinforced Songhay’s ability to fund its army and maintain dominance.

Cultural and Religious Factors

Although Sonni Ali’s religious policies were pragmatic rather than devoutly Islamic, the empire’s rulers benefited from Islamic legitimacy in the eyes of North African traders and scholars. This dual identity—acknowledging Islam while accommodating local religious practices—helped to unify the diverse populations within the expanding empire.

The Capture of Timbuktu

The conquest of Timbuktu in 1468 was a decisive moment in the Songhay rise. Timbuktu was more than a trading hub; it was also a centre of Islamic scholarship, housing prestigious institutions such as the Sankore University and numerous madrasas. By controlling Timbuktu, Songhay rulers:

• Secured access to international trade networks.

• Enhanced their prestige by associating with a renowned city of learning.

• Positioned themselves as heirs to Mali’s earlier achievements, strengthening their legitimacy both regionally and in the wider Islamic world.

Summary of Key Factors Leading to the Rise

The rise of the Songhay Empire around 1450–1500 can be attributed to a combination of factors:

• Geopolitical context: the decline of the Mali Empire and fragmentation of Sahelian politics.

• Strategic geography: control of the Niger River and access to trans-Saharan trade.

• Military superiority: especially the effective deployment of cavalry.

• Leadership: strong rulers such as Sonni Ali, whose conquests consolidated Songhay authority.

• Religious pragmatism: balancing Islam with traditional belief systems to maintain unity.

The combination of these circumstances transformed Songhay from a regional kingdom into the dominant power of Sahelian Africa during the late fifteenth century.