OCR Specification focus:
‘role of lawyers and clerics; Shari’a; the economy (including gold, salt, agriculture, trade, slavery, taxation); Islam and traditional religion’
The Songhay Empire relied on a delicate balance between religion, law, and economics. Lawyers, clerics, and Shari’a law shaped governance, trade, and society in significant ways.
Role of Lawyers and Clerics
Lawyers and clerics were central to the functioning of the Songhay Empire. They ensured the proper application of Islamic law and acted as intermediaries between rulers and the population.
Clerics (ulama) were educated scholars of Islamic law and theology. They acted as advisers to rulers and taught in schools and mosques.
Lawyers (faqihs) specialised in the interpretation of Shari’a law and oversaw cases relating to family, commerce, and morality.
They provided legitimacy to rulers by aligning their rule with Islamic principles. This was especially important when rulers sought support from the Muslim merchant class.
Clerics also maintained connections with centres of Islamic learning such as Timbuktu, where the Sankore Mosque acted as a hub of scholarship.
Shari’a: The body of Islamic religious law derived from the Qur’an, the Hadith (sayings of the Prophet), and scholarly interpretation.
The growing influence of clerics sometimes caused tensions with rulers such as Sonni Ali, who was accused of syncretism (mixing Islam with traditional beliefs), and with local populations who retained traditional practices.
Shari’a and Political Authority
The enforcement of Shari’a law enhanced the authority of Songhay rulers, particularly under Askia Muhammad (1493–1528). His reign saw a stronger integration of Islamic law within governance.
Askia Muhammad sought advice from North African jurists to consolidate his legitimacy.
He appointed judges (qadis) to provincial centres, ensuring the empire was bound by a shared legal framework.
Shari’a strengthened commercial trust between traders, as it regulated contracts, debt, and fair taxation.
However, Shari’a was not universally applied. Many rural areas continued with customary law based on local traditions, showing the duality of religion and governance within Songhay.
Qadi: An Islamic judge appointed to rule in accordance with Shari’a law, responsible for cases involving religion, trade, family, and morality.
This blend of systems allowed the empire to function flexibly across diverse regions, but it also revealed the challenge of imposing uniform religious governance.
The Economy and Legal Oversight
Lawyers and clerics were intertwined with Songhay’s economic strength. The empire’s prosperity depended on control of trans-Saharan trade and agricultural production.
Gold and Salt
Gold was mined in the south and exported northwards, where it was exchanged for salt, a highly prized commodity.
Clerics ensured contracts were upheld, reducing disputes in long-distance trade.
Trust in Islamic commercial law made Songhay attractive to Muslim merchants from North Africa.
Trans-Saharan commerce revolved around gold and salt, with Timbuktu and Gao acting as entrepôts linking the Niger bend to North African markets.
Agriculture and Taxation
Fertile regions around the Niger provided grain surpluses. Taxation on agriculture formed a key part of state revenue.
Shari’a principles influenced taxation systems, such as zakat (almsgiving), which reinforced religious legitimacy while ensuring redistribution.
Zakat: A form of almsgiving required by Islamic law, typically a fixed proportion of income or wealth given to support the poor and religious institutions.
Lawyers were instrumental in overseeing taxation disputes, while clerics reinforced the moral duty of paying taxes by linking them to religious obligation.
Trade and Slavery
Songhay’s trade networks extended to North Africa, Europe, and the Middle East. Goods included textiles, horses, and metal goods.
Slavery was a major economic factor. Slaves were captured in wars and used in agriculture, mining, or sold across the Sahara.
Clerics debated the status of slaves under Islamic law, generally permitting slavery of non-Muslims but granting rights to Muslim slaves.
Islam and Traditional Religion
The empire was characterised by a dual religious system: a formal Islamic elite and a populace that continued traditional practices.
Islam was strongest in towns and among the ruling elite. Clerics encouraged mosque construction, Qur’anic schools, and pilgrimages to Mecca.
In rural areas, animist traditions persisted, including belief in spirits and ritual practices tied to agriculture and fertility.
Many rulers adopted a pragmatic approach, endorsing Islam for legitimacy in international trade while tolerating local practices for social cohesion.
Animism: A belief system attributing spiritual essence to natural objects, places, and living beings.
This coexistence created tensions but also stability. The legitimacy of rulers such as Askia Muhammad came from their Islamic credentials, yet their power rested on accommodating diverse beliefs.
Centres of Learning and Cultural Influence
The prominence of clerics was reinforced by Songhay’s role as a centre of Islamic scholarship. Timbuktu, Jenne, and Gao housed renowned schools that attracted scholars from across Africa and beyond.
Timbuktu’s Sankoré quarter hosted madrasas where students studied Maliki jurisprudence, Qur’anic exegesis and logic with noted ʿulamāʾ.
Sankoré Mosque, Timbuktu, a hub of Islamic scholarship associated with teaching fiqh (Maliki law) and producing jurists and qāḍīs. Its Sudano-Sahelian architecture reflects local building traditions supporting a global Islamic curriculum. The image anchors the discussion of clerics, Shari’a, and learning. Source
The Sankore University in Timbuktu was famous for its Qur’anic studies, jurisprudence, and science.
Manuscripts produced in Timbuktu covered religion, law, medicine, and astronomy, showing the broad intellectual contributions of clerics.
Clerics ensured that legal knowledge and moral instruction extended beyond elites, embedding Shari’a into everyday life.
These centres enhanced Songhay’s prestige in the wider Islamic world and reinforced clerical influence within governance and trade.
Interactions Between Religion and Power
The relationship between lawyers, clerics, and rulers shaped the stability of the Songhay Empire. Clerics could legitimise rulers but also challenge them when policies deviated from Islamic norms.
Islamic judges (qāḍīs) and muftis drew on a written tradition; scholars also compiled chronicles and legal opinions that shaped Songhay’s record of rule.
Support from clerics strengthened Askia Muhammad’s claim to power after overthrowing Sonni Ali’s successor.
Conversely, resistance from religious figures could undermine rulers accused of heresy or neglecting Shari’a.
The moral authority of clerics often rivalled political authority, acting as a check on rulers’ power.
Ultimately, the interplay of law, religion, and economy defined Songhay’s structure. Lawyers and clerics upheld Islamic law, integrated economic practice with religious duty, and mediated between Islamic orthodoxy and traditional beliefs.
FAQ
Clerics often studied at Qur’anic schools attached to mosques in major cities such as Timbuktu and Jenne.
Advanced training came through madrasas, where scholars specialised in Maliki jurisprudence, theology, and Arabic grammar. Many clerics also studied under recognised teachers, acquiring knowledge through oral transmission and memorisation of texts.
Some travelled to North Africa or the Middle East, bringing back new interpretations and strengthening the intellectual connections between Songhay and the wider Islamic world.
Qadis were not limited to legal disputes. They also:
Oversaw community disputes, including land ownership and trade disagreements.
Managed endowments (waqf), ensuring property supported mosques or schools.
Acted as mediators between local leaders and central authority, reinforcing trust in governance.
Their presence gave Shari’a a practical role in regulating daily affairs, not just political matters.
In towns and trading centres, Shari’a was dominant, particularly in commerce and taxation.
In rural areas, customary law based on local traditions continued, especially in family, inheritance, and agricultural practices.
Rulers and clerics often tolerated this dual system, recognising that enforcing strict uniformity could undermine local stability. This pragmatic blend allowed Songhay to govern diverse populations.
Zakat was more than charity; it reinforced the ruler’s legitimacy. By collecting and distributing wealth according to Islamic principles, rulers appeared as guardians of both faith and justice.
It helped fund religious institutions, supported the poor, and justified taxation as a religious duty rather than exploitation. This strengthened trust in governance and aligned the empire’s fiscal system with Islamic moral authority.
Clerics compiled manuscripts on:
Qur’anic commentary and jurisprudence
Scientific subjects such as astronomy and medicine
Chronicles recording Songhay’s rulers and political events
These texts reinforced clerics’ authority as guardians of knowledge. They also allowed Islamic law and learning to endure beyond oral traditions, linking Songhay to the broader Islamic scholarly world.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two economic activities in the Songhay Empire that were closely linked to the role of lawyers and clerics.
Mark Scheme for Question 1:
1 mark for each correct identification, up to 2 marks.
Acceptable answers include:
Gold trade (regulated by Islamic commercial law)
Salt trade (contracts overseen by clerics)
Taxation (clerics reinforced religious duty of payment, e.g. zakat)
Agriculture (linked to taxation and redistribution)
Slavery (debated and regulated under Islamic law)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how the enforcement of Shari’a law strengthened the authority of rulers in the Songhay Empire.
Mark Scheme for Question 2:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Simple or generalised statements with limited relevance, e.g. “Shari’a law helped rulers because it was religious.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation with limited detail or analysis. May mention Askia Muhammad or qadis but without full development, e.g. “Askia Muhammad used Shari’a law by appointing judges, which helped him.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Developed explanation with clear supporting detail. Candidates should show how rulers used Shari’a for political legitimacy and administrative control, e.g.:
Askia Muhammad sought advice from North African jurists to bolster legitimacy.
Appointment of qadis in provincial centres created a shared legal framework.
Shari’a increased trust in trade and contracts, strengthening state authority over commerce.
Religious endorsement from clerics consolidated rulers’ authority among the urban elite.
Marks awarded according to the level achieved. Partial answers credited proportionally.
