OCR Specification focus:
‘Russia in 1645, social and economic backwardness, problems with the Tsar; personality and rule of Alexis, legalisation of serfdom 1649, church reform and schism 1649, growth of western influence and’
Introduction
In 1645, Russia entered a new era under Tsar Alexis. His reign exposed deep-rooted social and economic weaknesses, yet also initiated reforms shaping Russia’s seventeenth-century trajectory.
Russia in 1645: The Context of Backwardness
Social and Economic Backwardness
When Alexis assumed power in 1645, Russia remained a largely agrarian society, overwhelmingly dependent on subsistence farming. The economy was characterised by:
Limited urban development, with Moscow dominating as the only major city.
Poor infrastructure and primitive transport routes, restricting internal trade.
Heavy reliance on serf-based agriculture, providing the backbone of production but limiting innovation.
Minimal engagement in international trade, as Russia’s natural barriers and conservative structures hindered economic dynamism.
Despite these weaknesses, the Russian Orthodox Church and the nobility (the boyars) reinforced a rigid social hierarchy that resisted rapid modernisation.
Problems with the Tsarist State
The tsarist monarchy faced significant challenges in 1645. Russia’s bureaucracy was inefficient, corruption was rife, and regional elites often obstructed central authority. Military weakness was evident, as Russia’s forces lacked the organisation and discipline of their European counterparts. These difficulties left the Tsar with limited capacity to reform or centralise governance effectively.
The Personality and Rule of Tsar Alexis
Character and Style of Rule
Tsar Alexis (reigned 1645–1676) was widely regarded as pious, conscientious, and deeply attached to the Orthodox Church.
Parsuna-style portrait of Tsar Alexis I in ceremonial regalia, conveying the sacral authority of the Muscovite autocracy. Court portraiture like this reinforced the image of a divinely sanctioned ruler. The visual emphasis on costume and insignia complements the discussion of Alexis’s pious, conservative political culture. Source
His personal qualities included:
Religious devotion, which shaped many of his decisions.
A reputation for gentleness, though often indecisive when confronted with strong opposition.
A tendency to rely heavily on advisers, notably Patriarch Nikon and later a circle of reformist nobles.
His reign reflected both his personality and the pressures of seventeenth-century Russia: reformist in some areas, but constrained by conservatism in others.
The Legalisation of Serfdom (1649)
The Sobornoye Ulozhenie
Manuscript volume of the Sobornoye Ulozhenie (1649), the comprehensive law code issued under Alexis. The code systematised Muscovite law and formalised the binding of peasants to the land, consolidating noble power. The image anchors the legal reforms discussed in the notes to an authentic historical artefact. Source
This legislation represented a turning point in Russian society.
Sobornoye Ulozhenie: The comprehensive legal code introduced under Tsar Alexis in 1649, which codified laws and reinforced the authority of the tsar.
Key features included:
Formal legalisation of serfdom, binding peasants permanently to the land and their landlords.
Restriction of peasants’ right to mobility, ending even the limited seasonal freedom of movement.
Increased authority of landowners over their peasants, consolidating the social dominance of the nobility.
Harsh penalties for resistance, which reinforced authoritarian control.
This move stabilised the nobility’s loyalty but entrenched social backwardness by tying Russia more firmly to a feudal model.
Church Reform and the Schism (1649 onwards)
Patriarch Nikon and Reform
Alexis supported Patriarch Nikon, who sought to align Russian Orthodox practices more closely with the Greek Orthodox tradition. Nikon’s reforms included:
Standardising liturgical texts and rituals.
Introducing new forms of church governance.
Seeking to strengthen the moral and spiritual authority of the Church.
The Schism (Raskol)
These reforms provoked resistance from many devout believers, leading to the schism (known as the Raskol) within the Russian Orthodox Church.
Raskol: The split within the Russian Orthodox Church in the mid-seventeenth century, caused by opposition to Patriarch Nikon’s reforms, leading to the rise of the Old Believers.
Those rejecting reform, the Old Believers, saw the innovations as heretical betrayals of authentic Russian spirituality. The state’s harsh persecution of Old Believers deepened divisions in Russian society and fostered enduring religious dissent.
Growth of Western Influence
Cultural and Intellectual Change
Despite Russia’s conservatism, Alexis’s reign saw the beginnings of Western influence:
Increasing contact with European traders, soldiers, and diplomats, particularly from Poland, Sweden, and the German states.
The introduction of Western military techniques, which exposed Russian shortcomings.
Limited cultural borrowing, including Western styles of dress and education among elite circles.
Resistance to Westernisation
However, these changes were met with suspicion by much of the population. The Orthodox Church viewed Western influence as spiritually dangerous, while peasants saw it as threatening traditional ways of life. Nonetheless, Alexis’s cautious openness laid the groundwork for the more radical reforms of his son, Peter the Great.
Conclusion: The Legacy of Alexis’s Rule
Tsar Alexis’s reign was marked by contrasts. On one hand, his legalisation of serfdom and role in the church schism entrenched backwardness and internal conflict. On the other hand, limited Western influence began to seep into Russian society. His deeply religious personality and reliance on advisers reflected both strengths and weaknesses, shaping Russia’s trajectory at a critical moment in its history.
FAQ
Foreign mercenaries were employed to strengthen Russia’s weak military structure. They introduced new techniques in fortification, gunnery, and battlefield organisation.
Their presence also exposed Russia’s lack of modern training and discipline compared with European armies, highlighting the country’s military backwardness in the mid-seventeenth century.
While the code is most famous for binding peasants to the land, it also limited the rights of urban groups.
Townspeople were obliged to remain in their registered towns.
Merchants faced restrictions on movement, intended to prevent tax evasion.
This further reduced social mobility and reinforced rigid control by the state.
Nikon’s close partnership with Alexis gave the Church significant political authority.
His attempts to assert Church power over secular affairs alienated boyars and even the Tsar himself. This tension eventually led to Nikon’s fall from favour in 1666, illustrating how intertwined religion and politics had become.
Western influence was modest but noticeable in elite circles:
Foreign musicians and actors were invited to Moscow.
Some aristocrats adopted European clothing styles.
New schools opened, teaching foreign languages and sciences.
Although limited, these changes marked the early stages of Russia’s exposure to European cultural trends.
Alexis often delegated power to strong personalities, which created both efficiency and instability.
Patriarch Nikon dominated religious and some political reforms.
Boyar factions shaped policies on foreign affairs and finance.
This reliance reflected Alexis’s indecisive character and contributed to factional rivalries at court.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the name of the 1649 law code issued under Tsar Alexis which legalised serfdom?
Mark Scheme for Question 1
1 mark for identifying the law code as the Sobornoye Ulozhenie.
1 additional mark for correctly stating that it was issued in 1649.
(Maximum 2 marks)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why the reforms of Patriarch Nikon led to a schism (Raskol) in the Russian Orthodox Church during the reign of Tsar Alexis.
Mark Scheme for Question 2
Award up to 3 marks for each explained reason (2 × 3 = 6 marks maximum).
1 mark for identifying a reason.
1–2 further marks for explanation and development showing understanding of why it caused division.
Possible reasons include:
Nikon attempted to align Russian Orthodox practices with Greek traditions by standardising liturgical texts and rituals. (1 mark identification) + Explanation that many saw this as unnecessary interference, leading to accusations of heresy and rejection of the reforms. (+1–2 marks)
The reforms challenged long-standing Russian religious identity and rituals, such as the sign of the cross. (1 mark identification) + Explanation that Old Believers viewed the new practices as a betrayal of authentic Russian Orthodoxy, prompting resistance and persecution. (+1–2 marks)
Other valid points may be credited if accurately explained and relevant.
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