OCR Specification focus:
‘direct rule of Peter and campaigns against Azov; embassy to the West 1697–1698’
Peter the Great’s assumption of direct rule and his early campaigns reflect his ambition to strengthen Russia militarily and modernise it through exposure to Western Europe.
Peter’s Direct Rule
Peter formally began his direct rule in 1689 after the defeat of his half-sister Sophia’s attempted coup. Although still sharing the throne with his half-brother Ivan V until 1696, Peter increasingly became the dominant authority. His rule was marked by energy, determination, and a relentless pursuit of reform. From the outset, Peter emphasised the strengthening of Russia’s military and the projection of its influence beyond its borders.
Consolidation of Power
Peter’s position was secured following the fall of Sophia and the decline of the influence of the Streltsi (the Moscow garrison troops who had backed her regency).
His military upbringing at Preobrazhenskoe and time spent in mock regiments prepared him for leadership and encouraged his belief in modern, disciplined armies.
His consolidation was gradual, but by the time of Ivan V’s death in 1696, Peter ruled alone and without challenge.
Campaigns Against Azov
The first major military venture of Peter’s direct rule focused on the Ottoman-controlled fortress of Azov. Azov, located on the Don River near the Black Sea, was a strategic outpost that restricted Russia’s access to warm-water ports, vital for trade and expansion.
First Campaign (1695)
Peter personally led an army of around 31,000 troops against Azov.
Despite determination, the campaign failed because:
The Russian army lacked proper siege artillery.
The Don Cossacks, allies of Peter, provided limited support.
Poor coordination and logistical shortcomings undermined the effort.
This defeat underscored the need for a modern navy, a lesson that Peter took seriously.
Creation of the Navy
Following the failed attempt, Peter ordered the construction of a fleet at Voronezh. Shipbuilding was carried out on an unprecedented scale for Russia, mobilising thousands of workers.
Navy: A branch of a nation’s armed forces concerned with conducting military operations at sea.
The project symbolised Peter’s forward-thinking vision, aligning with his desire to westernise and militarise Russia.
Second Campaign (1696)
With a fleet of newly built ships, Peter launched a second campaign.
This time the fortress was successfully besieged and captured.
Significance of Azov
Enhanced Peter’s prestige at home and abroad.
Demonstrated the effectiveness of military reform and new naval power.
Served as a springboard for further diplomatic and military ventures.
The Grand Embassy to the West (1697–1698)
After Azov, Peter turned to diplomacy and learning. The Grand Embassy was a vast diplomatic mission to Western Europe designed to strengthen Russia’s international standing and gather knowledge.
Aims of the Embassy
To form alliances against the Ottoman Empire.
To recruit foreign experts, especially shipbuilders and military specialists.
To purchase weapons and learn about Western industrial and administrative practices.
To gain first-hand experience of European society, culture, and technology.
Journey and Observations
The Embassy travelled through the Dutch Republic, England, and the Holy Roman Empire, with further visits to Austria and Venice. Peter travelled incognito as “Sergeant Pyotr Mikhailov,” though his identity was widely known.
Image: insert image from
In the Dutch Republic, Peter worked in the shipyards of Zaandam and Amsterdam, learning modern shipbuilding techniques.
Abraham Storck’s painting depicts Peter the Great inspecting shipbuilding in Amsterdam during the Grand Embassy. It highlights his practical engagement with Western naval expertise in 1697. Source
In England, he studied naval organisation and dockyards, visiting Greenwich and the Royal Observatory.
He observed industrial methods, military organisation, and government systems, which left a lasting impression.
Recruitment and Knowledge Transfer
Peter successfully recruited:
Naval officers and shipwrights.
Military engineers.
Craftsmen in metalworking and manufacturing.
These individuals later became crucial in training Russian forces and developing new industries.
Failure in Diplomacy
Despite successes in recruitment, Peter failed to achieve his main diplomatic aim of forging a strong anti-Ottoman alliance. European powers were increasingly preoccupied with the looming War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), leaving little room for Russia’s ambitions.
Return to Russia and the Streltsi Revolt
While Peter was abroad, the Streltsi revolted once more in 1698, seeking to restore Sophia. The rebellion was crushed with brutal efficiency. Thousands were executed or exiled, and Peter’s distrust of the Streltsi ensured their permanent disbandment.
The suppression reaffirmed Peter’s absolute control.
It symbolised his commitment to replacing old military structures with new, westernised forces.
The executions shocked contemporaries and reinforced Peter’s reputation for ruthlessness.
Broader Impact of Azov Campaigns and the Embassy
Peter’s early campaigns and travels demonstrated his dual strategy of military expansion and modernisation through Western influence.
The success at Azov boosted Russia’s confidence as an emerging European power.
The Embassy provided direct exposure to Western technology and culture, reinforcing Peter’s belief that reform was essential for survival and success.
The crushing of the Streltsi marked a decisive shift towards absolute autocracy and modernisation, free from the influence of traditional military elites.
These formative years of direct rule set the stage for Peter’s later reforms and wars, embedding westernisation and militarisation at the heart of Russian policy.
FAQ
Azov controlled access from the Don River to the Black Sea, giving the Ottomans dominance over southern trade routes.
For Russia, possession of Azov promised:
A foothold towards warm-water ports, vital for year-round trade and naval power.
Influence in the Black Sea region, which had long been blocked by Ottoman strength.
Greater bargaining power in international diplomacy, as holding Azov improved Russia’s military credibility.
Peter’s shipbuilding project faced serious obstacles:
Russia had little tradition of large-scale naval construction.
Skilled craftsmen and shipwrights were scarce, forcing Peter to rely on foreign experts.
Resources such as timber and iron had to be mobilised on an unprecedented scale, requiring forced labour from peasants and serfs.
Logistical issues, including transporting massive timbers across difficult terrain, slowed production.
Despite these difficulties, the programme succeeded in producing a functional fleet by 1696.
Reactions were mixed.
In the Dutch Republic, Peter was welcomed, though his unconventional behaviour sometimes shocked locals.
In England, he was treated as an honoured guest by William III, but his entourage’s unruly conduct in London created controversy.
Many European rulers regarded Russia as semi-barbarous, yet Peter’s enthusiasm for learning impressed intellectuals and artisans.
Diplomatically, however, the embassy achieved little, as alliances were distracted by the War of the Spanish Succession.
Peter adopted this disguise to:
Observe European practices more freely without the formality of royal protocol.
Emphasise his desire to learn practical skills, especially in shipbuilding, without appearing above manual labour.
Reinforce his own image as a ruler willing to share in the work of common soldiers and craftsmen.
However, his height and entourage made his identity obvious, limiting the effectiveness of his disguise.
The failure convinced Peter that Russia’s future power depended on modernisation.
Key lessons included:
Siege warfare required heavy artillery and trained engineers, which Russia lacked.
Control of waterways demanded a navy, prompting immediate investment in shipbuilding.
Traditional military forces such as the Streltsi were unreliable compared with disciplined, Western-style troops.
This campaign therefore acted as a turning point, driving Peter’s relentless push towards reform and westernisation in military affairs.
Practice Questions
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why Peter the Great undertook the Grand Embassy of 1697–1698.
Mark scheme
Award up to 3 marks for each well-explained reason, maximum 6 marks:
To seek alliances against the Ottoman Empire (1 mark for identifying, 1 mark for contextualising its importance, 1 mark for explaining why it failed to achieve this).
To learn about Western technology and shipbuilding (1 mark for identifying, 1 mark for describing Peter’s hands-on work in shipyards, 1 mark for explaining how this linked to Russia’s naval reforms).
To recruit foreign experts such as shipbuilders, military engineers, and craftsmen (as above, reward with up to 3 marks if used as a second reason).
Indicative content:
Peter’s strategic concerns about the Ottoman Empire and Russia’s access to warm-water ports.
His personal curiosity and determination to modernise Russia in line with Western European practices.
The broader aim of strengthening Russia’s international prestige and military capability.
Maximum 6 marks.
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Peter the Great successfully capture the fortress of Azov?
Mark scheme
1696 = 2 marks
Any other date = 0 marks
