OCR Specification focus:
‘Ultras; liberal and reactionary policies, Richelieu, Decazes, Villèle; the domestic and foreign policies of Charles X and his ministers.’
The years 1814 to 1830 in France were marked by a volatile struggle between ultra-royalist reaction and liberal reform, as monarchs and ministers attempted to define the balance of authority, tradition, and change after the fall of Napoleon.
The Ultras and their Aims
The Ultras (short for ultra-royalists) were the most conservative political faction in Restoration France.
They supported a strong monarchy, close ties between throne and Church, and the reversal of many revolutionary and Napoleonic reformsUltras: Ultra-royalists who sought the complete restoration of pre-1789 society, favouring absolutism, aristocratic privilege, and clerical authority.
Ultras: Ultra-royalists who sought the complete restoration of pre-1789 society, favouring absolutism, aristocratic privilege, and clerical authority.
Key characteristics of the Ultras included:
Opposition to the Charter of 1814, which they viewed as too liberal.
A desire to re-establish the privileges of the nobility and the Catholic Church.
Hostility towards revolutionary land settlements, although these were never fully reversed.
Their influence grew after 1815, when the second restoration of Louis XVIII followed Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo. The ‘Chambre introuvable’ of 1815 was dominated by Ultras and passed harsh reactionary legislation.
Moderate Ministers and Liberal Tendencies
While Louis XVIII himself leaned towards moderation, he relied on ministers with differing approaches.
Richelieu
Armand-Emmanuel du Plessis, Duc de Richelieu served as prime minister (1815–1818).
He supported moderation to stabilise France after Napoleon.
His government worked towards the end of Allied occupation in 1818, achieving the withdrawal of foreign troops through the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle.
Richelieu attempted to balance royalist demands with international credibility, avoiding extremes.
Decazes
Élie Decazes, prime minister (1819–1820), pursued more liberal policies.
Favoured press freedom and electoral reform to broaden the base of the Charter monarchy.
Encouraged the rise of a constitutional monarchy that could satisfy liberals while containing royalist reaction.
His support for moderation alienated Ultras, and his position collapsed after the assassination of the Duke of Berry in 1820, which conservatives exploited to demand stricter controls.
Charter of 1814: Constitutional framework granted by Louis XVIII establishing limited monarchy, civil liberties, and a two-chamber legislature, while preserving monarchical authority.
Decazes’ fall marked the decline of liberal momentum in the Restoration.
Villèle
Joseph de Villèle, an Ultra, dominated politics as prime minister (1821–1828).
Joseph de Villèle, principal Ultra statesman of the Restoration, championed measures that bolstered aristocracy and Church. His tenure exemplifies reactionary policy within a constitutional framework. The portrait provides a concrete reference for the minister behind censorship and émigré indemnities. Source
Implemented policies favouring the aristocracy and the Church.
Restored compensation to émigrés whose lands had been confiscated during the Revolution.
Passed the Anti-Sacrilege Act (1825), reinforcing the alliance of throne and altar.
Strengthened censorship of the press and restricted suffrage to conservative elites.
His premiership reflected the swing towards reactionary dominance.
Charles X and his Policies
When Charles X succeeded Louis XVIII in 1824, he embodied ultra-royalist principles more openly. He believed monarchy derived from divine right and aimed to strengthen royal authority.
Domestic Policies
Charles X reinforced reactionary measures:
Introduced generous financial compensation to émigrés.
Enforced stricter censorship and curbs on public freedoms.
Supported clerical dominance in education and social policy.
These measures alienated broad sections of society, including moderate royalists, liberals, and the growing middle class.
Foreign Policy
Charles X’s ministers attempted to restore prestige abroad:
Intervention in Spain (1823) with the “Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis” successfully reinstated Ferdinand VII, strengthening Bourbon legitimacy.
A simplified sketch of the Bay of Cádiz (1823) showing key positions around Trocadero, where French forces defeated Spanish Liberals. This directly illustrates the campaign that restored Ferdinand VII. Source
However, such policies drained finances and did not resolve domestic discontent.
Polignac
In 1829, Charles appointed Jules de Polignac as prime minister. His ultra-conservative stance further provoked liberal opposition.
Polignac’s refusal to compromise intensified political crisis.
His administration pursued colonial expansion, notably the conquest of Algiers in 1830, designed to rally support but failing to ease tensions at home.
Reactionary: A political stance opposing reform, aiming to restore previous social or political systems, often privileging monarchy, aristocracy, and established religion.
The Escalation of Conflict
By the late 1820s, tensions between liberals demanding constitutional government and Ultras insisting on reactionary dominance reached breaking point. The cumulative effect of:
Villèle’s restrictive policies,
Charles X’s divine right claims,
Polignac’s intransigence,
created a volatile political climate.
The clash between liberal and reactionary visions for France ultimately destabilised the monarchy and set the stage for the crisis of 1830.
FAQ
The Chambre introuvable gained its name from Louis XVIII, who believed it was “unfindable” in its extreme royalism. It was packed with Ultra deputies, largely elected by a narrow, conservative franchise.
This majority pushed through harsh laws against suspected Bonapartists and liberals, including purges of officials and restrictions on the press. The chamber’s extremism discredited the Ultras, forcing Louis XVIII to dissolve it in 1816, highlighting the dangers of excessive reaction.
The Duke of Berry, nephew of Louis XVIII, was murdered by a Bonapartist sympathiser. His death shocked the monarchy because he was the last viable heir in the direct Bourbon line.
The Ultras exploited the tragedy to argue that liberalism threatened the monarchy’s survival. In response, stricter press censorship and electoral changes were introduced, rolling back Decazes’ liberal reforms and strengthening reactionary influence in government.
The Act made profanation of the Eucharist punishable by death and lesser offences by imprisonment or fines.
It was controversial because:
It reintroduced religious law into the penal code, seen as a step back towards clerical dominance.
Many moderates and liberals regarded it as disproportionate and an infringement on civil liberty.
In practice, the law was rarely enforced, but it symbolised the reassertion of throne and altar.
In 1823, France sent the “Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis” to crush Spanish liberals and restore Ferdinand VII’s absolute rule.
Short-term, this boosted Bourbon prestige and demonstrated military capability without heavy losses.
Long-term, it reinforced the image of France as reactionary and out of step with liberal movements across Europe.
Financial costs worsened France’s economic difficulties, adding to discontent at home.
Polignac was an Ultra loyalist and openly dismissive of liberal constitutional principles. His appointment in 1829 was interpreted as a royal rejection of compromise.
Key consequences included:
Heightened polarisation between monarchists and liberals.
His colonial ambitions, particularly in Algeria, distracted from domestic unrest.
His intransigence alienated even moderate royalists, isolating the monarchy further and setting the stage for confrontation in 1830.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Who were the Ultras in Restoration France, and what did they aim to restore?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying that the Ultras were ultra-royalists/conservative supporters of the Bourbon monarchy.
1 mark for explaining their aims, e.g. restoration of aristocratic privilege, clerical authority, or pre-revolutionary social order.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how the policies of Charles X and his ministers reflected reactionary attitudes between 1824 and 1830.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 6 marks:
1–2 marks: Limited knowledge shown, e.g. vague reference to censorship or Charles X’s religious views without detail.
3–4 marks: Some accurate knowledge of policies, e.g. émigré compensation, clerical influence in education, Anti-Sacrilege Act, press restrictions. Limited explanation of how these were reactionary.
5–6 marks: Clear and developed explanation, with multiple policies linked directly to reactionary principles (restoring Church authority, favouring aristocracy, undermining constitutional liberties). Explicit connection made to Charles X’s ministers such as Villèle or Polignac.
