OCR Specification focus:
‘Charles X’s views on monarchy; social and economic problems, religious policy; Polignac’
Introduction
Charles X’s reign (1824–1830) was shaped by strong royalist beliefs, economic pressures, and divisive religious policies, culminating in political instability and growing opposition.
Charles X’s Views on Monarchy
The Divine Right of Kings
Charles X was a staunch believer in the divine right of kings, the principle that monarchs derive their authority directly from God rather than from the people.
This outlook set him apart from Louis XVIII, who had been more pragmatic in accepting constitutional limitations. Charles sought to restore the monarchy’s pre-revolutionary dignity, emphasising ceremony, symbolism, and traditional authority.
Charles X in his coronation robes, painted by François Gérard (c.1825). The regalia, ermine, and sceptre communicate sacral kingship and Bourbon continuity. A clear, uncluttered portrait ideal for discussing monarchical ideology. Source
Divine Right of Kings: The doctrine that a monarch’s legitimacy and authority are granted by God, making them accountable only to divine will rather than popular sovereignty.
His coronation at Reims in 1825 was a deliberate attempt to link his rule with the ancient Bourbon tradition, reinforcing continuity with France’s pre-revolutionary past.
Political Philosophy
He distrusted constitutional monarchy and regarded the Charter of 1814—which granted civil liberties and parliamentary structures—as a concession forced upon the monarchy.
He saw himself as a guardian of Catholicism and aristocratic privilege, seeking to reassert the power of the Church and nobility in French society.
This rigid approach alienated both liberals, who demanded greater parliamentary authority, and moderates, who valued compromise.
Social and Economic Problems
Agriculture and Rural Hardship
The French economy in the 1820s remained heavily agricultural. Poor harvests combined with fluctuations in grain prices created hardship for peasants, who formed the majority of the population.
The rural poor often suffered from food shortages and high bread prices.
Wealthier landowners benefitted from government policies protecting grain prices, deepening social divisions.
Urban Growth and Social Strain
While industrialisation in France lagged behind Britain, towns and cities began to experience population growth. This gave rise to:
Unemployment and underemployment in craft and manufacturing sectors.
Rising tensions between traditional artisan workers and a new urban middle class.
Poor living conditions that fuelled resentment against the government’s inability to tackle social distress.
Financial Challenges
France was burdened with war indemnities and debts from previous conflicts. Economic stagnation was compounded by conservative fiscal policies, which:
Protected aristocratic landowners.
Favoured stability over reform.
Discouraged investment in modernisation.
Religious Policy
The Sacrilege Law (1825)
Charles X’s religious policy was heavily influenced by his determination to restore Catholic dominance in France. The Sacrilege Law, introduced in 1825, imposed severe penalties, including death, for profaning the Eucharist.
This policy:
Reflected Charles’s conviction that religion was the moral foundation of society.
Alienated many French citizens who valued religious tolerance after the Revolution.
Symbolised a broader attempt to reverse revolutionary secularisation.
Church and State Relations
Charles favoured a close partnership between the state and the Catholic Church:
He encouraged the expansion of Church control over education, particularly primary schooling.
He supported compensation to émigré nobles who had lost property during the Revolution, strengthening ties with the old aristocracy.
These measures reinforced perceptions of reactionary politics, further dividing French society.
The Influence of Polignac
Jules de Polignac as Chief Minister
In 1829 Charles X appointed Jules de Polignac, a loyal ultra-royalist, as chief minister. This decision intensified opposition to the monarchy.
Portrait of Jules de Polignac in formal robes (19th-century oil, often attributed to François Gérard). Use it to anchor discussion of the ministry’s ideology and its political isolation in 1829–1830. Clean, front-facing composition with minimal background distractions. Source
Polignac was seen as inflexible, deeply conservative, and out of touch with public opinion.
His government pursued authoritarian policies, resisting calls for reform or compromise with the Chamber of Deputies.
Liberals and moderates united in opposition, fearing a return to absolutism.
Policies and Consequences
Polignac pursued colonial expansion, notably in Algeria, hoping to strengthen national pride and distract from domestic discontent.
However, his domestic stance undermined political stability. The lack of responsiveness to economic grievances and social inequality fostered widespread dissatisfaction.
The combination of Charles’s rigid monarchical vision and Polignac’s uncompromising approach created the conditions for confrontation with the parliamentary opposition.
Growing Opposition
Alienation of Liberals and Moderates
Charles X’s policies increasingly isolated him from potential allies:
Liberals demanded greater freedom of the press and wider suffrage, which Charles resisted.
Moderate conservatives, once supportive of the Bourbon monarchy, began to fear his intransigence threatened stability.
Social Discontent
Urban workers resented unemployment and high living costs.
Peasants remained vulnerable to economic fluctuations.
Middle-class professionals, excluded from political influence, grew increasingly hostile to Charles’s rejection of constitutional principles.
Religious and Political Backlash
The imposition of strict Catholic measures and authoritarian governance rekindled memories of pre-revolutionary absolutism. For many, Charles appeared determined to undo the Revolution’s achievements, reigniting fears of oppression.
FAQ
Criticism stemmed from its deliberate attempt to revive pre-revolutionary traditions. The lavish ritual, with anointment and regalia, was seen as a rejection of constitutional monarchy and a return to absolutism.
Many moderates and liberals felt the coronation symbolised a monarchy out of touch with the Revolution’s legacy, emphasising ceremony and divine authority over compromise and modern governance.
Charles expanded Church influence over schools, particularly at the primary level.
Religious orders gained more control over teaching.
Secular subjects were deprioritised in favour of moral and religious instruction.
Liberals worried this undermined Enlightenment values of reason and civic education.
This fostered resentment among those who favoured a more secular and modern curriculum.
Charles X supported financial compensation to nobles who lost property during the Revolution.
This policy:
Strengthened loyalty among ultra-royalists and aristocrats.
Fuelled bitterness among taxpayers, who resented funding restitution.
Reopened divisions by highlighting unresolved grievances from the Revolution.
It reinforced the image of a monarchy prioritising aristocratic privilege over broader social needs.
Polignac hoped colonial expansion would boost France’s prestige and distract from domestic problems. The conquest of Algiers (1830) was framed as a patriotic victory.
However, critics argued resources were wasted abroad while social and economic difficulties persisted at home. Instead of uniting opinion, the Algerian venture exposed the monarchy’s failure to address pressing domestic concerns.
The monarchy’s protectionist and conservative economic stance frustrated the urban middle class.
Industrialists wanted policies to encourage growth and trade liberalisation.
Professionals resented their exclusion from political influence.
Restrictive fiscal policies favoured landowners, limiting investment opportunities.
This class, once a potential supporter of constitutional monarchy, increasingly joined opposition movements seeking reform and representation.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the Sacrilege Law of 1825, and why was it controversial?
Mark scheme
1 mark for identifying the Sacrilege Law (e.g. law punishing profanation of the Eucharist, including death penalty).
1 mark for explaining why it was controversial (e.g. many French people valued religious tolerance after the Revolution, saw it as reactionary, or feared return to clerical dominance).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Charles X’s views on monarchy and his appointment of Jules de Polignac contributed to political opposition between 1824 and 1830.
Mark scheme
1–2 marks: Simple description of Charles X’s royalist views (e.g. divine right of kings, emphasis on ceremony, restoration of pre-revolutionary dignity).
1–2 marks: Reference to Polignac’s role (e.g. ultra-royalist, inflexible, appointed as chief minister in 1829, unpopular with liberals and moderates).
1–2 marks: Explanation of how these factors contributed to opposition (e.g. alienation of liberals and moderates, fears of absolutism, discontent over economic and social problems being ignored).
To reach full marks, the answer must link both Charles’s ideology and Polignac’s appointment to the rise of opposition, showing awareness of cause and effect.
