OCR Specification focus:
‘Personality of Louis Philippe and the establishment, nature and problems of the July Monarchy; foreign policy including Belgium, Mehmet Ali Crisis, Tahiti, relations with Britain; domestic problems.’
Louis Philippe’s reign between 1830 and 1848 marked a distinctive experiment in constitutional monarchy, balancing liberal ideals with conservative forces, and navigating turbulent domestic and foreign challenges.
Louis Philippe’s Personality and Style of Rule
Louis Philippe, known as the “Citizen King”, cultivated an image distinct from the Bourbon monarchs who preceded him. He sought to portray himself as a monarch who ruled “by the will of the people” rather than divine right. His dress, demeanour, and daily life were deliberately modest. He often wore a black frock coat and umbrella, signalling bourgeois respectability rather than aristocratic extravagance.
Key Traits
Pragmatic and cautious: He avoided extremes, preferring compromise over confrontation.
Middle-class appeal: His reliance on the bourgeoisie reflected the growing power of the middle classes in French politics.
Suspicion of radicalism: Despite his liberal image, he rejected radical democratic reforms, wary of revolution and instability.
Citizen King: A title given to Louis Philippe reflecting his bourgeois lifestyle and claim to legitimacy through popular sovereignty rather than divine right.
Louis Philippe’s character shaped the monarchy into a more limited, constitutional system, although it remained far from fully democratic.
Establishment of the July Monarchy
The July Monarchy was established following the 1830 Revolution, which overthrew Charles X after the Ordinances of St Cloud. It represented a compromise between revolutionary fervour and conservative forces, aiming to stabilise France.
Structure
Constitutional monarchy: The Charter of 1814 was revised, strengthening parliamentary power.
Restricted suffrage: Only around 170,000 men could vote, based on property qualifications, ensuring dominance of wealthy elites.
King’s authority: Louis Philippe retained significant powers, including the right to appoint ministers and dissolve the Chamber of Deputies.
Problems of Establishment
The July Monarchy was caught between two pressures:
Conservatives demanded protection of property and order.
Radicals sought wider suffrage, republicanism, or even socialist reforms.
This tension created a regime lacking broad legitimacy, surviving more on balance than on deep-rooted support.
Domestic Problems of the July Monarchy
The July Monarchy faced persistent social, political, and economic problems.
Political Opposition
Legitimists: Supporters of the Bourbon line rejected Louis Philippe as a usurper.
Republicans and socialists: Criticised the monarchy’s limited suffrage and failure to address poverty.
Bonapartists: Hoped for a revival of Napoleonic rule.
Social and Economic Tensions
Urban unrest: Rapid urbanisation led to poor housing, low wages, and periodic uprisings in Paris.
Industrial unrest: Strikes and workers’ demonstrations reflected early class conflict.
Corruption allegations: The monarchy was accused of nepotism and favouritism, weakening its moral standing.
Legitimists: Monarchists who supported the senior Bourbon line and rejected the Orleans monarchy of Louis Philippe.
The failure to broaden suffrage or address social distress left the regime vulnerable to opposition across the political spectrum.
Foreign Policy under Louis Philippe
Louis Philippe’s foreign policy was cautious, aimed at avoiding war while maintaining France’s prestige. He sought a policy of “peace abroad, order at home.”
Belgium (1830–1839)
The Belgian Revolution broke out against Dutch rule.
France supported Belgian independence but avoided annexation, which might have provoked Britain and other powers.
The Treaty of London (1839) guaranteed Belgian neutrality, accepted by both France and Britain, symbolising cooperation.
The Mehmet Ali Crisis (1840)
The Egyptian ruler Mehmet Ali challenged Ottoman authority, supported by France.
Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia opposed France, backing the Ottoman Sultan.
France was diplomatically isolated and forced to withdraw, suffering humiliation.
Tahiti and Colonial Tensions
France expanded colonial presence in Tahiti, clashing with British missionary and trade interests.
Though tensions rose, war with Britain was avoided through negotiation.
Relations with Britain
Relations fluctuated between cooperation and rivalry.
Entente Cordiale atmosphere: During the Belgian settlement, Anglo-French relations were relatively positive.
Strains: The Mehmet Ali Crisis and colonial disputes over Tahiti demonstrated deep mistrust.
Entente Cordiale (19th-century context): A spirit of understanding and cooperation between Britain and France, particularly over Belgian independence, though it later came to mean a formal 1904 agreement.
Broader Aims
Louis Philippe aimed to position France as a balancing power in Europe, avoiding isolation but also steering clear of major wars. His failure in 1840, however, revealed the limitations of French influence when opposed by the conservative powers.
Nature of the July Monarchy
The July Monarchy has been described as a bourgeois monarchy because it primarily served the interests of the middle and upper classes.
Characteristics
Conservative liberalism: Political reform was limited, aimed at stabilisation rather than transformation.
Economic orientation: Favoured bankers, industrialists, and merchants through policies encouraging commerce and finance.
Social conservatism: Rejected radical reform, leaving the working classes alienated.
The July Monarchy thus represented a middle path: more liberal than Bourbon absolutism but more conservative than republicanism.
FAQ
Louis Philippe feared that expanding the franchise would empower radical republicans and socialists, destabilising the monarchy.
He relied on the wealthy bourgeoisie, particularly bankers, merchants, and industrialists, who benefitted from limited suffrage. By keeping the electorate narrow, he preserved elite dominance and minimised risks of popular unrest.
Charles X ruled by divine right, emphasising tradition and the Bourbon line. His legitimacy stemmed from hereditary succession and the Catholic Church.
Louis Philippe, by contrast, styled himself as ruling by “the will of the people.” His claim to power emerged from the July Revolution, making him appear more constitutional and bourgeois in outlook.
The press flourished, with liberal newspapers actively criticising government policies.
However, censorship still existed. The regime often used fines or closures to silence critics, while republican and socialist papers faced harsher repression than moderate liberal outlets.
The press became a tool for shaping public opinion and fuelling opposition movements.
It avoided direct conflict with Britain and the conservative powers while preserving France’s influence.
Belgium became a neutral state, reducing fears of Dutch or Prussian dominance near France’s border.
The agreement with Britain helped improve relations, demonstrating that France could operate within the balance of power without war.
It represented one of the rare foreign policy triumphs of Louis Philippe’s reign.
In the 1840s, French Catholic missionaries clashed with British Protestant missionaries in Tahiti.
France declared Tahiti a protectorate in 1842, angering Britain, which had strong missionary and commercial links to the island.
Although tensions escalated, both nations avoided war, but the episode reinforced British suspicion of French colonial ambitions and weakened Louis Philippe’s claims of pursuing a cautious foreign policy.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Give two reasons why Louis Philippe was called the “Citizen King.”
Mark Scheme
1 mark for each valid reason up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Valid reasons include:
He dressed in a plain, bourgeois style (e.g., black frock coat and umbrella).
He claimed legitimacy from popular sovereignty rather than divine right.
He cultivated an image of modesty and middle-class respectability.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why Belgium was significant in Louis Philippe’s foreign policy between 1830 and 1839.
Mark Scheme
Level 1 (1–2 marks): General description with limited relevance to Belgium’s importance. Answers may be vague, e.g. “Belgium had a revolution and France supported it.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation of significance but lacking range or depth. May focus on one element such as independence without reference to wider European diplomacy. Example: “France supported Belgian independence but could not annex it because Britain opposed this.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear and developed explanation showing understanding of Belgian significance in French foreign policy and European stability. Answers should refer to:
France’s support for Belgian independence after the 1830 revolution.
The diplomatic settlement through the Treaty of London (1839).
Belgian neutrality as a buffer state and symbol of Anglo-French cooperation.
Importance for avoiding wider European war and maintaining peace.
To achieve top marks, responses must make clear how Belgium affected France’s foreign policy aims and relations with Britain.
