OCR Specification focus:
‘long and short-term political, social and economic causes of the 1848 Revolution; the establishment of the Second Republic’
The 1848 Revolution in France reflected deep-rooted political tensions, economic hardship, and growing social discontent. Its outcome, the Second Republic, redefined France’s political landscape.
Long-Term Political Causes
The July Monarchy, established in 1830 under Louis Philippe, was intended as a liberal alternative to Charles X’s conservative regime. However, over time, its legitimacy was undermined.
Nature of the July Monarchy
“Bourgeois monarchy”: The regime favoured the interests of the wealthy middle classes, excluding both the working class and much of the rural population.
Limited franchise: Only around 200,000 property-owning men could vote, creating frustration among radicals who demanded universal male suffrage.
Corruption and clientelism: The government was frequently accused of favouritism, with critics pointing to widespread corruption and nepotism.
Opposition to the Regime
By the 1840s, opposition had crystallised into distinct groups:
Republicans, who demanded the abolition of monarchy and the creation of a democratic republic.
Bonapartists, nostalgic for the stability and glory of Napoleonic rule.
Socialists, who called for social justice, workers’ rights, and measures to alleviate poverty.
Legitimists, who remained loyal to the Bourbon line displaced in 1830.
This wide array of opposition weakened the monarchy’s support base and set the stage for eventual collapse.
Short-Term Political Triggers
Although the long-term fragility of the regime was evident, immediate political factors proved decisive in sparking revolution.
The Banquets Campaign
From 1847, opposition leaders organised political banquets—ostensibly social gatherings but effectively rallies for reform. These provided a legal outlet for criticism of the regime, as political meetings were banned.
Guizot’s Intransigence
François Guizot, chief minister, epitomised resistance to reform. His refusal to expand the franchise or tackle corruption alienated moderates. The slogan “Enrichissez-vous” (“Enrich yourselves”) symbolised his belief that prosperity would come only through hard work, ignoring the realities of widespread hardship.
Long-Term Social and Economic Causes
The 1848 Revolution was as much about material conditions as political discontent.
Industrialisation and Social Change
France lagged behind Britain in industrialisation, but growth created new tensions:
Urban working class: Concentrated in cities like Paris, workers faced low wages, job insecurity, and poor living conditions.
Artisans and craftsmen: Resented mechanisation, which threatened traditional skills and livelihoods.
Peasantry: Many smallholders still struggled with debt and fluctuating agricultural prices.
Proletariat: The class of wage-earning urban workers, especially industrial labourers, whose livelihoods depend on selling their labour.
The growth of the proletariat increased pressure on the political system to address social concerns.
Rural Discontent
The majority of French citizens were peasants, and their resentment stemmed from:
Tax burdens, particularly the indirect taxes on basic goods.
Rural poverty and limited landholdings.
A sense of exclusion from political life.
Short-Term Economic Crises
Economic downturns exacerbated structural problems, pushing discontent into open revolt.
Agricultural Crises
The harvest failures of 1846–1847 led to soaring food prices, malnutrition, and famine in some areas.
Rural hardship spilled into urban centres, where grain shortages triggered unrest.
Industrial Crises
Declining demand caused widespread unemployment, particularly in Paris.
Artisans and small workshops were hit by collapsing markets.
Economic misery reinforced political radicalisation, with increasing support for socialist ideas.
The 1848 Revolution
In February 1848, protests in Paris over the banned banquet escalated into violent clashes. Barricades were erected, echoing revolutionary traditions of 1789 and 1830.
Fall of Louis Philippe
The king, unwilling to employ brutal repression, abdicated on 24 February 1848.
His abdication reflected the monarchy’s loss of legitimacy and inability to adapt to social and political pressures.
Role of the National Guard and Army
Both forces showed reluctance to suppress the demonstrators, a critical factor in the revolution’s success. This mirrored earlier revolutionary moments when state authority fractured under popular pressure.
Establishment of the Second Republic
With Louis Philippe’s departure, the monarchy was abolished, and the Second Republic proclaimed.
Provisional Government
Formed in February 1848, dominated by a mix of moderate republicans and socialists.
Introduced universal male suffrage, enfranchising around 9 million men—a dramatic expansion from the July Monarchy.
Adopted symbols of republicanism, such as the tricolour flag and “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité” as the official motto.
Social Reforms
The government sought to address the social question:
Established National Workshops to provide employment for the jobless.
Considered broader reforms in education, welfare, and labour rights, though divisions quickly emerged between moderates and radicals.
Political Divisions
The new Republic faced ideological fragmentation:
Moderate republicans prioritised political liberty and stability.
Socialists and radicals demanded economic transformation and social equality.
Conservatives feared revolutionary excesses and disorder.
These tensions would shape the turbulent early years of the Second Republic, foreshadowing further conflict.
FAQ
The press, though censored, was a key channel for spreading opposition ideas. Political satire and clandestine pamphlets criticised the monarchy and Guizot’s government.
Newspapers sympathetic to republicanism gave publicity to the banquets campaign and highlighted corruption scandals. This shaped public opinion and helped coordinate discontent across France.
Although excluded from voting rights, women were active in February 1848. They manned barricades, provided food, and joined crowds demanding reform.
In Paris, women’s clubs and petitions pushed for expanded education, work opportunities, and even suffrage. However, the Provisional Government largely ignored these demands, reinforcing the male-centred nature of political reform.
The National Workshops aimed to provide work for the unemployed, but they faced practical issues.
Funding was inadequate, straining state finances.
Jobs offered were often menial or underpaid, fuelling dissatisfaction.
Conservatives saw them as dangerous “socialist experiments.”
By June 1848, opposition to the Workshops led to their closure, sparking the June Days uprising.
News travelled quickly via railways and newspapers, inspiring demonstrations and unrest across France.
In provincial towns, workers and artisans organised local protests, while peasants interpreted the fall of the monarchy as a chance to demand tax relief and fairer land distribution.
The provisional government’s decrees, including universal suffrage, had to be implemented nationally, reinforcing the spread of revolutionary momentum beyond Paris.
The Republic revived revolutionary imagery to unite diverse supporters.
The tricolour flag was reaffirmed as the national standard.
The motto “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité” became official.
Trees of liberty were planted in towns as public rituals of loyalty.
These symbols linked the Second Republic to the revolutionary heritage of 1789 and 1830, while signalling a break from the monarchy.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Give one long-term political cause and one short-term political cause of the 1848 Revolution in France.
Mark scheme
Award 1 mark for a correct long-term political cause, such as:
Exclusion of most of the population from the franchise under the July Monarchy
Corruption and clientelism of the regime
Growing republican, socialist, and Bonapartist opposition
Award 1 mark for a correct short-term political cause, such as:
The Banquets campaign in 1847–48
Guizot’s refusal to introduce electoral reform
Cancellation of the Paris banquet in February 1848
Maximum 2 marks.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why economic problems contributed to the outbreak of the 1848 Revolution in France.
Mark scheme
Level 1 (1–2 marks): General or limited statements, e.g. “People were poor” or “There was unemployment.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation with some accuracy, e.g. “The harvest failures of 1846–47 increased food prices and created hardship in the countryside, which led to unrest in cities.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Developed explanation showing clear links between different economic issues and revolutionary outbreak, e.g.
Harvest failures of 1846–47 caused soaring food prices, malnutrition, and famine.
Urban unemployment increased as industrial demand fell, creating widespread hardship in Paris.
Artisans were hit by mechanisation and collapsing markets, fuelling support for socialist demands.
The combination of agricultural and industrial crises pushed discontent into open revolt in February 1848.
Maximum 6 marks.
