OCR Specification focus:
‘The diplomacy of Cavour and his relations with Napoleon III; causes and results of the war of 1859.’
Italy’s path to unification in the mid-19th century was shaped by diplomacy, international alliances, and conflict. The war of 1859 marked a decisive turning point.
Cavour’s Diplomatic Strategy
Background and Objectives
Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, became Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1852. His vision was to transform Piedmont into the engine of Italian unification. He believed that unification could not be achieved solely through revolutionary uprisings, as had been attempted by Mazzini and others. Instead, he prioritised diplomacy, modernisation, and the support of powerful foreign allies.
Cavour aimed to:
Strengthen Piedmont politically, militarily, and economically.
Establish Piedmont as a constitutional monarchy distinct from autocratic regimes in Italy.
Secure foreign backing to expel Austria, which dominated northern Italy.
Relations with France and Napoleon III
The most crucial element of Cavour’s diplomacy was his relationship with Napoleon III of France. Napoleon III, Emperor of the French, harboured ambitions of extending French influence in Europe and presented himself as sympathetic to nationalist causes.
Cavour cultivated this relationship by:
Presenting Piedmont as a modern, liberal state aligned with French ideals.
Supporting French interests in Europe, such as during the Crimean War (1853–1856), where Piedmont fought alongside Britain and France. This won Piedmont a seat at the post-war peace conference in Paris, raising its international profile.
Exploiting Napoleon III’s desire to weaken Austria, France’s rival in European politics.
Crimean War: A conflict (1853–1856) involving Russia against an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, Britain, and later Piedmont, fought primarily over influence in the declining Ottoman Empire.
The Pact of Plombières (1858)
In July 1858, Cavour and Napoleon III held a secret meeting at Plombières. The two leaders agreed that France would support Piedmont in a war against Austria, under specific conditions:
France would provide military assistance if Austria appeared as the aggressor.
Piedmont would cede Savoy and Nice to France as compensation.
A future Italian confederation was envisaged, with Piedmont in a dominant position.
This agreement represented a turning point in the Risorgimento, showing that diplomatic negotiations could replace failed revolutionary attempts.
Causes of the War of 1859
Austria’s Dominance in Italy
Austria was the most powerful state in northern Italy, controlling Lombardy and Venetia directly and exerting influence over central duchies. Its presence was the primary obstacle to Italian nationalists seeking independence and unity.
Austria controlled the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, and the peninsula remained fragmented among the Papal States, the Two Sicilies, and the central duchies.
A contemporary 1859 map of Italy illustrating the fragmented peninsula. It highlights Austrian control of Lombardy–Venetia and clarifies why Cavour needed French support to alter the balance. Source
Piedmont’s Provocation
Cavour deliberately sought to provoke Austria into declaring war, thus making France’s intervention legitimate under the Plombières agreement. Measures included:
Mobilising Piedmontese troops.
Encouraging anti-Austrian agitation in Lombardy and the central duchies.
Delivering speeches in parliament that criticised Austrian dominance.
Austria’s Ultimatum
In April 1859, Austria demanded that Piedmont demobilise. When Cavour refused, Austria declared war. This fulfilled the condition for French intervention.
The War of 1859 (Second Italian War of Independence)
Franco-Piedmontese Successes
The joint forces of France and Piedmont achieved significant victories:
Battle of Magenta (June 1859): Franco-Piedmontese forces defeated the Austrians, securing Lombardy.
Battle of Solferino (June 1859): Another victory, though at enormous human cost, highlighting the brutal nature of modern warfare.
Key engagements were Magenta (4 June 1859) and Solferino/San Martino (24 June 1859), where Franco-Piedmontese forces defeated Austria.
A topographic battle map of Solferino and San Martino (24 June 1859). It shows Franco-Piedmontese and Austrian troop positions, clarifying how Austrian defences collapsed under coordinated pressure. Source
Battle of Solferino: A decisive clash on 24 June 1859 in northern Italy where French and Piedmontese troops defeated Austrian forces; its horrors inspired the founding of the Red Cross.
Armistice of Villafranca (1859)
Unexpectedly, Napoleon III agreed to an armistice with Austria at Villafranca, without consulting Cavour. The terms included:
Austria retaining Venetia.
Lombardy transferred to French control, then handed to Piedmont.
Restoration of deposed rulers in central Italian states.
Cavour was furious, believing the diplomatic gains had been undermined. He resigned temporarily in protest.
Results of the War
Gains for Piedmont
Despite setbacks, the war significantly advanced the cause of unification:
Piedmont gained Lombardy, enlarging its territory and prestige.
Nationalist revolts in central Italy led to the annexation of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena into Piedmont in 1860, despite Villafranca’s terms.
Cavour was restored as Prime Minister to oversee the next stages of unification.
France’s Rewards
France received Savoy and Nice, as promised at Plombières, consolidating Napoleon III’s position domestically and extending French influence.
Nationalist Momentum
The war demonstrated that nationalism could succeed when combined with diplomacy and foreign support. It undermined Austria’s dominance and inspired further movements across the peninsula.
Limitations
However, the war also revealed challenges:
Italy remained divided, with Venetia and Rome outside Piedmontese control.
Dependence on foreign powers, particularly France, created tensions within the nationalist movement.
By the Treaty of Zürich (November 1859), Lombardy passed to Piedmont via French intermediation; in 1860 plebiscites unified Central Italy while Nice and Savoy were ceded to France.
Legacy of Cavour’s Diplomacy
Cavour’s strategy of pragmatic diplomacy, rather than revolutionary idealism, proved effective in advancing unification. His alliance with Napoleon III, though fragile, was central to the success of 1859. The war demonstrated the interplay of diplomacy, war, and nationalist aspirations, setting the stage for the dramatic developments of the 1860s.
FAQ
Napoleon III hoped to enhance French prestige by supporting nationalist movements while also weakening Austria, a rival power in Europe.
He also believed France could secure tangible rewards, namely Savoy and Nice, and extend influence in Italy without directly creating a powerful unified Italian state that might challenge French dominance.
Many French liberals sympathised with Italian nationalism, seeing it as consistent with the principles of 1789.
Napoleon III needed to maintain support at home, so aiding Piedmont aligned with popular liberal sentiment. However, conservative Catholics were concerned about weakening Austria, a defender of the Papal States. Balancing these pressures made Napoleon cautious, shaping his later retreat at Villafranca.
Piedmont’s participation was small militarily but symbolically significant.
It earned Cavour a seat at the 1856 Paris Peace Conference, raising Piedmont’s profile.
He used the opportunity to highlight the “Italian Question” to Europe’s great powers.
This gave Cavour credibility as a statesman and made Piedmont appear as more than a minor state, strengthening his case for French partnership.
Napoleon III grew alarmed at:
The high casualties at Solferino.
The threat of Prussia mobilising in defence of Austria, risking a wider European war.
Domestic Catholic opposition to weakening Austria, protector of the Pope.
These pressures forced him to compromise, prioritising French stability over Italy’s full liberation.
The Treaty:
Confirmed Austria’s loss of Lombardy but left Venetia under Habsburg control.
Restored rulers in the central duchies, frustrating nationalist hopes.
Reinforced Italy’s reliance on foreign intervention rather than self-determination.
Although it marked progress, many nationalists saw it as incomplete and dependent on France’s shifting priorities rather than a true victory for Italian independence.
Practice Questions
Which two territories did Piedmont agree to cede to France as part of the Pact of Plombières (1858)?
Mark Scheme
1 mark for each correct territory.
Correct answers: Savoy and Nice.
Maximum 2 marks.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why Cavour sought an alliance with Napoleon III in the years before the war of 1859.
Mark Scheme
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Simple statements showing basic knowledge, e.g. “Cavour needed help to fight Austria” or “Napoleon III was sympathetic to nationalism.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
More developed explanation with some detail, e.g. “Cavour needed French support because Austria was too strong for Piedmont alone, and Napoleon III was open to weakening Austria.”
May include reference to Piedmont’s involvement in the Crimean War as a way to strengthen ties with France.
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Clear, detailed explanation with multiple reasons supported by precise knowledge.
Points may include:
Cavour understood Piedmont lacked the strength to defeat Austria without French military aid.
Napoleon III presented himself as sympathetic to nationalist causes, making him a likely ally.
The Pact of Plombières formalised the arrangement and demonstrated Cavour’s diplomatic success.
The Crimean War had already elevated Piedmont’s international profile and helped secure France’s interest.
Answers at this level show clear understanding of both Cavour’s aims and Napoleon’s motives.
