OCR Specification focus:
‘Garibaldi and the Thousand and the expedition to Sicily.’
The expedition of the Thousand in 1860 was a decisive turning point in the Italian Risorgimento, uniting revolutionary zeal, charismatic leadership, and political calculation into one dramatic campaign.
Background to the Expedition
The unification of Italy had entered a crucial phase by 1860. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia under Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II had already expanded its influence after the Second War of Italian Independence (1859), gaining Lombardy. Yet vast areas of the peninsula remained under foreign or conservative control, most notably the Bourbon-ruled Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in the south.
Giuseppe Garibaldi’s Role
Giuseppe Garibaldi was a veteran revolutionary leader and charismatic military commander who had long campaigned for Italian unity.
Giuseppe Garibaldi: An Italian nationalist and soldier whose military exploits made him a popular hero of the Risorgimento, symbolising unity and revolutionary action.
Garibaldi was initially frustrated by Cavour’s cautious diplomacy, but he decided to take independent action to drive the Bourbons from the south, thus complementing Piedmont’s efforts. His personal prestige and reputation for daring attracted volunteers.
The Expedition of the Thousand
In May 1860, Garibaldi set sail from Quarto, near Genoa, with just over a thousand volunteers, known as the “Redshirts.” Though small in number, their commitment and Garibaldi’s leadership would make the expedition legendary.
Key Stages of the Campaign
Landing in Sicily: Garibaldi landed at Marsala on 11 May 1860, aided by the distraction of British naval vessels nearby, which discouraged Bourbon resistance.
Battle of Calatafimi: Shortly afterwards, the Thousand defeated Bourbon forces in their first major engagement. This victory boosted morale and encouraged Sicilian peasants to join.
Capture of Palermo: In late May and June, Garibaldi, supported by popular uprisings, captured Palermo after fierce street fighting.
March Across Sicily: By July, Garibaldi controlled most of Sicily after a decisive victory at Milazzo.
Crossing to the Mainland: In August, Garibaldi crossed the Straits of Messina and advanced rapidly through Calabria with little resistance.
Expédition des Mille (1860) — a clear map showing the path of Garibaldi’s Thousand from Marsala through Palermo and Messina to the mainland and Naples. Labels are minimal and easy to read; language is French but the geography and route are unambiguous. Source
Entry into Naples: On 7 September 1860, Garibaldi entered Naples triumphantly, as the Bourbon King Francis II retreated.
These stages transformed the campaign from a daring gamble into a movement that reshaped Italian politics.
Popular Support and Local Impact
The expedition was strengthened by popular discontent in the south. Many Sicilians resented Bourbon misrule, and uprisings in Palermo and elsewhere provided crucial support.
However, while peasants joined in large numbers, their motivations often differed from Garibaldi’s nationalist aims. Many hoped for land reform rather than national unity. This divergence would later create tensions between Garibaldi’s radical promises and Piedmont’s conservative agenda.
Relations with Cavour and Piedmont
Cavour and the Piedmontese government had mixed feelings about Garibaldi’s campaign.
On one hand, Garibaldi’s success offered the opportunity to extend Piedmont’s control and unify more of Italy.
On the other hand, Garibaldi’s radicalism and links with Mazzini’s republican ideals threatened to destabilise Piedmont’s constitutional monarchy.
By October 1860, Garibaldi’s forces faced the Bourbon army at the Battle of the Volturno, the largest engagement of the campaign. Though Garibaldi won, it revealed the limits of his volunteer army.
Piedmontese Intervention
Cavour acted decisively, fearing Garibaldi might march on Rome and provoke French intervention. Piedmontese forces invaded the Papal States, defeating papal troops at Castelfidardo, and linked with Garibaldi’s men in Naples.
In a symbolic gesture, Garibaldi handed over authority to Victor Emmanuel II in November 1860 at Teano.
Outcomes of the Expedition
The expedition of the Thousand had immense consequences:
Collapse of the Bourbon monarchy: The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was annexed to Piedmont.
Creation of a new Italy: Southern Italy was incorporated into the expanding Kingdom, laying the groundwork for the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.
Garibaldi’s legacy: His heroic reputation was cemented, though his radical hopes were curtailed by Piedmontese pragmatism.
Peasant disappointment: Promises of land redistribution were largely unfulfilled, leading to unrest in the Mezzogiorno.
Historical Significance
The expedition demonstrated the interplay of revolutionary action and diplomatic statecraft in the Risorgimento. Garibaldi’s bold initiative created opportunities that Piedmont, under Cavour, carefully managed to expand and consolidate the monarchy’s control.
It also highlighted tensions within the nationalist movement: republican versus monarchical aims, northern versus southern expectations, and idealism versus realpolitik.
In sum, the expedition to Sicily was not merely a military episode but a defining event in the struggle for Italian unification, marking the triumph of action, charisma, and national momentum over conservative resistance.
FAQ
Marsala was chosen partly by chance, but its proximity to local anti-Bourbon uprisings made it a useful entry point.
British naval vessels were anchored nearby, and their presence discouraged Bourbon ships from interfering with the landing.
This allowed Garibaldi to disembark his men with minimal resistance and immediately link up with sympathetic Sicilian insurgents.
The Thousand were largely self-funded and wore simple red shirts, a uniform adopted from Garibaldi’s campaigns in South America.
Their equipment was basic: many carried outdated or mismatched weapons.
Discipline, morale, and Garibaldi’s tactical leadership compensated for poor resources, while new recruits and captured arms from defeated Bourbon soldiers improved their supplies.
Foreign powers, particularly Britain, played an indirect but important role.
The Royal Navy did not openly support Garibaldi but tacitly tolerated his landing at Marsala.
Britain valued free trade access to Sicilian ports and viewed Bourbon rule as backward and unstable.
Other powers, including France, monitored events cautiously, concerned that Garibaldi’s advance might disrupt the balance of power in Italy.
Garibaldi emphasised personal loyalty, simplicity, and patriotic sacrifice.
Volunteers pledged obedience to him directly.
He shared their hardships, eating and marching alongside them.
His reputation for bravery and fairness inspired devotion, reducing the likelihood of desertion or disobedience.
This leadership style was essential in holding together a force that lacked formal military organisation.
Garibaldi declared himself Dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel II, asserting legitimacy for his rule.
He abolished certain feudal privileges and promised reforms, including land redistribution to peasants.
However, many promises were not realised due to limited resources and eventual Piedmontese intervention, leaving social tensions unresolved in the Mezzogiorno.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
In which year did Garibaldi and the Thousand land at Marsala, and which ruling dynasty controlled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies at that time?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying the year as 1860.
1 mark for correctly naming the ruling dynasty as the Bourbon dynasty.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why Garibaldi’s expedition to Sicily in 1860 was successful.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks per reason explained.
Award 1 mark for identification of a reason, 1–2 further marks for explanation/development.
Examples may include:
Popular support in Sicily: Many Sicilians opposed Bourbon rule; uprisings in Palermo and elsewhere aided Garibaldi’s forces. (1 mark for identification; +1–2 for explanation of how this support boosted his campaign).
Garibaldi’s leadership and charisma: His reputation and skill inspired loyalty among the Redshirts and attracted new recruits. (1 mark for identification; +1–2 for explanation).
Weakness of the Bourbon forces: Poor morale and ineffective command meant they collapsed quickly against Garibaldi’s determined volunteers. (1 mark for identification; +1–2 for explanation).
Strategic victories: Battles such as Calatafimi and Milazzo established momentum and control of Sicily. (1 mark for identification; +1–2 for explanation).
Maximum of 6 marks. Credit other relevant, accurate reasons.
