OCR Specification focus:
‘Piedmontisation 1861–1870; further attempts at unification; Brigands’ War and the policies of the new Italy.’
Italy’s unification in 1861 created a new state, but the reality was fragile and incomplete. Piedmontese dominance, resistance in the south, and unresolved territorial ambitions defined this decade.
Piedmontisation 1861–1870
The process of Piedmontisation referred to the imposition of Piedmontese institutions, laws, and practices across the new Kingdom of Italy. Instead of creating a blended, federal arrangement, the political elite under Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour’s successors extended the Piedmontese model of centralised administration to the whole peninsula.
Administrative Reforms
Statuto Albertino (the Piedmontese constitution of 1848) became the constitution of the new Italy, emphasising limited monarchy and parliamentary government.
Piedmontese laws, currency, tax systems, and army structures were imposed nationwide.
Bureaucrats and officials from Piedmont staffed key posts in other regions, creating resentment among locals.
Cultural and Political Consequences
This centralisation alienated large parts of the population, particularly in the Mezzogiorno (southern Italy).
Regional traditions and dialects were disregarded, fuelling accusations that the state was northern-dominated and indifferent to southern needs.
The new Italy struggled to create a sense of shared national identity.
Piedmontisation: The process of extending Piedmont’s political, legal, and administrative systems across the new Italian kingdom after 1861, rather than adopting a compromise or federal approach.
Further Attempts at Unification
Although 1861 marked the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, several regions remained outside its control. Leaders continued to pursue unification until 1870.
Venetia
Venetia remained under Austrian rule after 1861.
Italy’s opportunity came in 1866, during the Austro-Prussian War. Italy allied with Prussia, and although Italian military performance was weak (notably defeats at Custoza and Lissa), Austria ceded Venetia to Italy following Prussian victory.
Rome
Rome remained under papal control, supported by French troops under Napoleon III.
Italian nationalists viewed Rome as the natural capital of a united Italy.
In 1870, the Franco-Prussian War forced France to withdraw its garrison, and Italian troops entered Rome, completing unification.
Historical map showing the stages of Italian unification up to 1870, with Venetia (1866) and Rome (1870) highlighted among earlier annexations. This visual clarifies how Piedmont-Sardinia’s realm expanded into the Kingdom of Italy. Source
Trentino and Trieste
These regions, under Austrian control, were seen as part of the Italian nation but were not annexed until after the First World War. Their absence in 1870 left the process incomplete.
The Brigands’ War 1861–1865
The most significant internal threat to the new state came from widespread rebellion in the south. Known as the Brigands’ War, this was less a simple criminal problem and more a civil war reflecting deep tensions.
Thematic map indicating southern provinces affected by post-unification brigandage (1860–1870) and zones where the Pica Law was applied. It locates the insurgency within the Mezzogiorno, clarifying its geographic scope. Source
Causes
Resentment over conscription and new taxation policies.
Loss of traditional rights and privileges for peasants under Piedmontese law.
Disaffection among former Bourbon soldiers and local elites loyal to the deposed Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
Harsh economic conditions in the south, worsened by poor harvests and lack of investment.
Nature of the Conflict
Guerrilla bands, often supported by local populations, attacked troops, landowners, and officials.
Rebels included disbanded Bourbon troops, peasants, and common criminals.
At times, the rebellion had quasi-political motives, framed as resistance to northern domination.
Government Response
The state deployed large numbers of soldiers—sometimes up to 100,000 troops—to suppress the movement.
Harsh measures were introduced: executions, destruction of villages, and mass arrests.
Official propaganda labelled the rebels as mere brigands, downplaying their political or social grievances.
Brigands’ War: The widespread armed resistance in southern Italy between 1861 and 1865, combining peasant unrest, Bourbon loyalism, and banditry against the new Italian state.
Policies of the New Italy
Centralisation and Modernisation
The new Italy pursued centralised governance through Piedmontese laws, taxation, and a standardised military.
Railways and infrastructure projects aimed to integrate the peninsula, though investment was heavily skewed toward the north.
Economic Challenges
The south remained economically backward, dominated by subsistence agriculture and limited industrial development.
Taxation, including the unpopular grist tax on milling flour, disproportionately hurt the poor.
Relations with the Church
Rome remained outside Italian control until 1870, and the Pope opposed the legitimacy of the new state.
The Non Expedit decree (1868) forbade Catholics from participating in Italian politics, deepening divisions.
Military and Diplomacy
The new Italy sought international recognition and alliances, as seen in its support for Prussia in 1866.
Military expansion aimed to project strength but was hampered by weak finances and inconsistent leadership.
National Identity
Policies attempted to create an Italian national consciousness through standardisation of language, law, and education.
Yet, illiteracy and strong regional identities meant that most Italians identified more with their local community than with the nation.
Key Points for OCR Focus
Piedmontisation established a uniform state but created widespread resentment, particularly in the south.
Unification was incomplete in 1861 and required further wars and diplomacy to secure Venetia and Rome.
The Brigands’ War revealed deep fractures within the new state, highlighting the challenge of integrating the Mezzogiorno.
Policies of the new Italy aimed at modernisation, but tensions with the Church, economic disparity, and regional inequality limited success.
FAQ
Centralisation was pursued to ensure political stability and continuity. Piedmont already had a functioning administrative and legal system, making it easier to expand nationally.
A federal system might have preserved regional identities but was seen as risking fragmentation, especially with strong local loyalties in the south and lingering foreign influence. Leaders like Cavour believed only uniform governance could consolidate the new state quickly.
The state imposed Italian, based on Tuscan, as the official language. Yet fewer than 10% of Italians spoke it fluently in 1861, leading to widespread communication barriers.
Schools became key tools of nation-building: curricula promoted patriotic themes, and Italian was enforced in classrooms. This, however, alienated communities where dialects or minority languages dominated.
Venetia (1866): Austria ceded the region largely due to Prussia’s victory over Austria. International diplomacy allowed Italy to claim Venetia despite its own military failures.
Rome (1870): France’s withdrawal during the Franco-Prussian War created the opportunity. European powers tolerated Italy’s annexation, provided papal independence was respected.
Thus, foreign developments, rather than Italian strength, were decisive.
The government framed brigands as criminals and bandits, deliberately downplaying political or social grievances. Official propaganda stressed lawlessness rather than peasant discontent.
This justified harsh measures, including mass arrests, executions, and scorched-earth tactics. By controlling the narrative, the state presented itself as restoring order rather than repressing legitimate southern resistance.
The conflict served as a testing ground for the new army, which was stretched to its limits with up to 100,000 troops deployed.
It exposed weaknesses in training, organisation, and local intelligence, as soldiers struggled against guerrilla tactics.
However, it also helped unify the army under common experience, shaping its role as a tool of central authority across the new kingdom.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the Statuto Albertino and why was it important to the process of Piedmontisation after 1861?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying what the Statuto Albertino was (e.g., Piedmontese constitution of 1848).
1 mark for explaining its importance (e.g., it became the constitution of the whole Kingdom of Italy in 1861, showing Piedmontese dominance).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why the Brigands’ War (1861–1865) broke out in southern Italy after unification.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks per reason (2 reasons required).
1 mark for a valid reason identified.
1–2 additional marks for explanation of that reason.
Examples of acceptable reasons:
Resentment of new laws and taxes (e.g., conscription, grist tax).
Economic hardship and poverty in the Mezzogiorno.
Loyalty to the deposed Bourbon monarchy and opposition to northern dominance.
Discontent caused by the imposition of Piedmontese officials and loss of local autonomy.
Indicative content for explanation:
Harsh new taxes and conscription policies made the new state unpopular among peasants.
Economic underdevelopment and poor harvests worsened conditions, increasing resentment.
Many locals, including ex-Bourbon soldiers, resisted Piedmontese control, viewing it as illegitimate.
Piedmontisation policies disregarded southern traditions and fuelled alienation.
Maximum 6 marks: two fully developed reasons with explanations. Partial answers credited proportionally.
