OCR Specification focus:
‘the impact of Prussia’s wars against Austria and France 1866–1871 on Italy; the degree of unity in 1871; social and economic problems’
Italy’s role in Prussia’s wars against Austria and France shaped its final unification, influenced territorial expansion, and revealed deep divisions undermining political, social, and economic unity.
Prussia’s Wars and Italian Expansion
The Austro-Prussian War of 1866
The Austro-Prussian War (also known as the Seven Weeks’ War) was a short but decisive conflict between Austria and Prussia, with Italy siding with Prussia.
Italy’s main motivation was the acquisition of Venetia, still under Austrian control after 1861.
Italian forces were defeated at Custoza on land and at Lissa at sea, exposing military weakness.
Despite military setbacks, Italy benefitted diplomatically: Prussia’s victory at Königgrätz forced Austria to cede Venetia, which was transferred to Italy through French mediation.
Map showing the stages of Italian unification (1815–1870), including Venetia (1866) and Rome (1870). It highlights how Prussia’s victories facilitated Italian territorial gains. Source
This marked a crucial step in territorial unification, extending Italian control over much of the north.
Königgrätz: The decisive 1866 battle in which Prussia defeated Austria, forcing Austria’s withdrawal from German affairs and reshaping the balance of power in Europe.
Although Venetia was gained, Italy’s reliance on Prussia and France highlighted its limited independence in international politics.
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71
The outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War provided Italy with a new opportunity. France, which had stationed troops in Rome to protect the Papal States, was forced to withdraw.
In September 1870, Italian troops entered Rome, facing little resistance.
Rome was annexed and declared the new capital of Italy in 1871.
The symbolic incorporation of Rome represented the fulfilment of the Risorgimento for many nationalists.
Risorgimento: The 19th-century movement for Italian unification, combining cultural, political, and military efforts to create a single Italian nation-state.
The wars of 1866 and 1870 thus allowed Italy to complete territorial unification, though unity in practice remained fragile.
The Degree of Unity in 1871
Political Unity
By 1871, Italy was formally unified, but political integration was incomplete:
The Papal States’ annexation antagonised the Pope, who refused to recognise the legitimacy of the Italian kingdom.
The “Roman Question” became a major problem, with the Pope declaring himself a “prisoner in the Vatican” and urging Catholics to boycott participation in Italian politics.
The centralising policies of Piedmontisation alienated local traditions, as Piedmontese laws, administration, and officials dominated the new state.
Social Unity
Social unity remained elusive:
Many Italians still identified more with their region or local community than with the nation.
Illiteracy was widespread, limiting the spread of national identity.
Language barriers persisted; only a minority spoke standard Italian, with dialects dividing north and south.
Economic Unity
Economic development was uneven and exposed deep divides:
Industrialisation was concentrated in the north, especially Lombardy and Piedmont.
The Mezzogiorno (south) remained agricultural, impoverished, and plagued by the Brigands’ War (1861–1865), which left a legacy of mistrust towards the central state.
Locator map of the Mezzogiorno, highlighting the southern regions most associated with poverty, agrarian economy, and unrest after unification. It clarifies the geographical scope of Italy’s north–south divide. Source
Poor infrastructure limited internal cohesion, with inadequate railways and roads hampering communication and trade.
Mezzogiorno: The term used to describe southern Italy, traditionally less developed than the industrialising north, facing chronic poverty, unrest, and social challenges.
Thus, by 1871 Italy was politically unified but not yet socially or economically integrated.
The Impact of War on Italian Identity
National Pride and Prestige
The annexation of Venetia and Rome boosted Italian pride, allowing nationalists to claim that Italy had finally been made. The symbolic capture of Rome carried great emotional weight, reinforcing the legitimacy of the kingdom.
Dependence on Foreign Powers
However, Italy’s reliance on Prussia and France revealed a lack of independence:
Venetia was gained only through Prussia’s military success.
Rome was taken only because French troops were withdrawn due to the Franco-Prussian War.
This dependence undermined Italy’s image as a fully sovereign power.
Ongoing Divisions
The wars masked but did not resolve deep divisions:
The “two Italies” – the industrialising north and the impoverished south – hindered national unity.
The conflict with the Church alienated devout Catholics from the new state.
Political participation was restricted; the electoral franchise remained narrow, limiting democracy.
International Context
Italy’s expansion was tied to the wider shift in European power:
Prussia’s dominance reshaped Germany and reduced Austrian influence.
Italy benefited from this change but remained a secondary power, reliant on alliances and lacking strong independent influence.
Roman Question: The political and religious dispute between the Italian state and the Papacy following the annexation of Rome in 1870, unresolved until the Lateran Pacts of 1929.
In summary, while Prussia’s wars against Austria and France allowed Italy to achieve territorial unification, the country in 1871 faced severe challenges of integration, identity, and legitimacy.
FAQ
Italy’s military weakness was exposed in 1866. The army suffered a heavy defeat at Custoza, partly due to poor leadership and inadequate training. At sea, the Italian navy lost at Lissa, despite superior numbers, because of disorganisation and poor tactics. These failures highlighted that Italy was not yet a major military power and relied on Prussia’s victory for gains.
The addition of Venetia in 1866 and Rome in 1870 gave nationalists tangible successes, fulfilling long-standing ambitions.
Venetia’s inclusion reinforced the idea that Italy could be united through international alliances.
Rome’s annexation held deep symbolic value, as many saw the city as the natural capital of a unified Italy.
However, divisions persisted, showing that territorial expansion did not automatically equal national unity.
Many European powers accepted Italy’s annexation of Rome as a fait accompli, since France’s defeat left the Pope without military backing.
Austria, weakened after 1866, could not intervene.
Germany, under Prussia’s leadership, welcomed Italy’s expansion as it secured another ally against France.
The Papacy, however, strongly condemned the occupation, ensuring the “Roman Question” remained a divisive issue in European diplomacy.
The south faced chronic problems:
A largely agrarian economy, dependent on outdated farming methods.
Widespread poverty and poor infrastructure.
High illiteracy rates compared with the north.
These conditions bred resentment towards central authorities, especially after harsh measures were used to suppress brigandage. Many southerners viewed the new state as oppressive rather than liberating.
Railways were crucial for economic and political integration but remained limited by 1871.
The north had a denser network, linking industrial centres and facilitating troop movement.
The south lagged far behind, isolating rural communities and reinforcing economic divides.
This imbalance meant the railway system symbolised both progress and inequality, highlighting how infrastructural development was essential but incomplete for true national unity.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Which two territories were added to the Kingdom of Italy as a result of Prussia’s wars against Austria and France (1866–1871)?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correctly identified territory.
Acceptable answers:
Venetia (1866)
Rome (1870)
Maximum: 2 marks.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two problems that limited the degree of unity in Italy in 1871.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks per problem explained.
Credit should be given for both identification and explanation of the problem’s significance.
Indicative content:
The Roman Question (up to 3 marks): The annexation of Rome antagonised the Pope, who refused to recognise the new kingdom and urged Catholics not to participate in politics. This undermined political legitimacy and national unity.
North–South divide (up to 3 marks): Economic and social differences between the industrialising north and impoverished Mezzogiorno created divisions. Illiteracy, poverty, and poor infrastructure in the south hindered integration into the national framework.
Language and literacy barriers (up to 3 marks): Most Italians did not speak standard Italian, and widespread illiteracy limited the spread of national identity.
Award a maximum of 6 marks.
Full marks require identification of two distinct problems with valid explanation of each.
