OCR Specification focus:
‘economic and social change; industrial growth, e.g. coal, silk and railways’
Japan in the Meiji period underwent profound economic and social transformation. Rapid industrialisation, combined with deliberate state-led reform, turned a semi-feudal society into an emergent modern nation.
Economic Change in Meiji Japan
The Meiji government prioritised building a modern economy that could support military strength and protect sovereignty. To achieve this, leaders implemented policies aimed at restructuring agriculture, stimulating industry, and developing infrastructure.
Agricultural Foundations
Agriculture remained the backbone of the economy throughout the nineteenth century. Reformers understood that agricultural surplus was necessary to fund industrialisation. Farmers were required to pay the new land tax of 1873, which demanded fixed cash payments rather than a percentage of produce. This reform ensured a steady flow of revenue to the government.
The land tax contributed roughly 80% of government revenue in the 1870s.
Increased pressure on peasants often led to hardship, migration, and sporadic unrest.
Nevertheless, it provided essential capital for industrial and military development.
State Involvement in Industry
Initially, the state directly managed industrial ventures. The government established model factories in sectors such as textiles, shipbuilding, and armaments to demonstrate modern production techniques. These were often run at a loss but played a crucial role in skill transfer and industrial training.
By the 1880s, many of these enterprises were sold at discounted prices to politically connected families, giving rise to the zaibatsu (powerful industrial and financial conglomerates). This set the foundation for large-scale private enterprise.
Industrial Growth
Japan’s industrialisation was uneven but rapid, focusing on key industries that could generate wealth and support military needs.
Coal and Mining
Coal was vital for energy production and heavy industry. Mining expanded significantly, particularly in Hokkaidō and Kyūshū.
Government investment funded exploration and early mining operations.
Later, private firms modernised extraction techniques and increased output.
Coal powered steamships, railways, and factories, making it central to Japan’s modernisation.
"Coal became the indispensable fuel for steamships, railways and factories."
View of the Miyanohara Pit at Miike Coal Mine with steel headframes and the brick pump-house wall, exemplifying the heavy infrastructure that powered Meiji-era factories and transport. Although photographed in the modern era, the site represents late-Meiji industrial expansion in Kyūshū. Source
Silk Industry
Silk became Japan’s leading export in the late nineteenth century. The industry had deep roots in Japanese society but was transformed under Meiji reforms.
New reeling machines increased efficiency and quality.
Silk exports provided Japan with vital foreign exchange, used to purchase technology and weapons.
By 1900, silk accounted for over one-third of Japan’s total exports.
Zaibatsu: Large, family-controlled industrial and financial conglomerates that dominated the Japanese economy from the late 19th century, often formed through close ties with the state.
Silk production also relied heavily on female labour, with many young women employed in mills under challenging conditions, reflecting both opportunity and exploitation.
"The government founded the Tomioka Silk Mill (1872) as a model, importing French machinery and expertise to standardise high-quality reeled silk and train a national labour force."
Interior of the Tomioka Silk Mill’s silk-reeling plant, showing long rows of mechanised basins and spindles used to unwind cocoons into uniform thread. Mechanisation raised output quality and consistency, enabling export-led growth. The image illustrates the state’s technology-transfer strategy in textiles. Source
Railways and Infrastructure
Infrastructure investment was central to industrialisation. The government introduced modern transport and communication systems to integrate markets and encourage mobility.
The first railway, between Tokyo and Yokohama, opened in 1872.
By 1900, over 5,000 kilometres of track connected major cities and ports.
Telegraph lines and postal services expanded rapidly, enhancing national unity.
"- 1872: The 29-km Shimbashi–Yokohama line opened, Japan’s first railway."
Picture Map of the Shimbashi–Yokohama Railroad (1872), showing the inaugural 29-km line connecting the political and commercial hubs of Tokyo Bay. The visual highlights stations, coastline, and the single-track route at opening. Source
These developments facilitated the transport of coal, silk, and other goods, stimulating both domestic commerce and exports.
Social Change
Industrial growth brought significant social consequences. The transformation of society from agrarian to industrial altered traditional hierarchies, work patterns, and living conditions.
Urbanisation
The expansion of factories and railways drew populations into towns and cities.
Tokyo, Osaka, and Yokohama experienced rapid growth.
Urban life created new social challenges, including overcrowding and poor sanitation.
It also fostered cultural exchange, education, and political debate.
Labour Conditions
Industrial workers faced long hours, strict discipline, and minimal pay. Women and children were particularly vulnerable in textile factories.
Harsh working conditions often led to illness and high turnover.
Labour unrest began to appear in the early twentieth century, although unions were weak.
State authorities prioritised productivity over welfare, reflecting Japan’s drive for national strength.
Decline of Traditional Classes
The samurai class, already weakened by political reform, faced further decline as their stipends were converted into government bonds and eroded by inflation. Many samurai turned to commerce, education, or industrial ventures, contributing to the new economic order.
Peasants, burdened by taxation, often migrated to cities or joined the industrial workforce. This shift eroded village-based traditional structures and fostered new social dynamics.
Education and Human Capital
The Meiji government emphasised education as essential for modernisation. Universal primary education was introduced in the 1870s, producing a literate workforce capable of adapting to industrial demands. Technical schools and universities trained engineers, scientists, and bureaucrats to manage industrial growth.
Human Capital: The collective skills, knowledge, and capabilities of a population that contribute to economic productivity and innovation.
Education also instilled nationalism, linking economic progress to loyalty to the Emperor and state.
The Link Between Industry and Military Power
Industrialisation was not pursued for economic growth alone. The Meiji slogan “Fukoku kyōhei” (Rich Country, Strong Army) highlighted the close connection between economic modernisation and military strength. Coal mines, railways, and factories were intended to sustain a modern navy and army capable of defending Japan and expanding its influence abroad.
FAQ
Foreign engineers and advisers were central to introducing new technologies.
French experts trained workers at the Tomioka Silk Mill.
British engineers advised on railway construction, including the Shimbashi–Yokohama line.
German specialists influenced mining and metallurgy practices.
While expensive, their contracts allowed Japanese apprentices to gain first-hand experience, ensuring rapid transfer of knowledge before Japan reduced reliance on foreigners by the 1890s.
Women’s large-scale entry into factory labour, particularly textiles, altered gender norms.
Young rural women migrated to urban silk mills.
Factory work often required leaving home for extended contracts.
Some families relied on daughters’ wages to supplement agricultural incomes.
Despite harsh conditions, women gained exposure to literacy and wider social networks, subtly reshaping expectations of women’s roles in society.
Railways transformed political and cultural life.
Faster travel allowed government officials to project central authority across the nation.
Movement of newspapers and telegraph connections expanded national consciousness.
Conscription and troop movements became easier, binding industrial growth to state military policy.
Thus, railways were as much a tool of political integration as of commerce.
Coal mining altered landscapes and created social tensions.
Deforestation increased around mining areas to support infrastructure.
Pollution from smoke and mining waste affected nearby communities.
Dangerous working conditions led to frequent accidents, sparking early labour disputes.
These consequences highlight that industrial growth brought significant ecological and human costs.
Universal schooling created a disciplined, literate workforce.
Primary education introduced arithmetic and basic science, aligning with industrial needs.
Technical schools trained engineers for railways, factories, and mines.
Moral education stressed loyalty to the Emperor, ensuring industrial progress was tied to nationalism.
By the early twentieth century, Japan had one of the highest literacy rates in Asia, supporting its rapid industrial development.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two key industries that expanded in Japan during the Meiji period.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct industry.
Acceptable answers include: coal, silk, railways, shipbuilding, armaments.
(Maximum 2 marks.)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how the Land Tax Reform of 1873 supported Japan’s industrial development during the Meiji period.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying the reform as introducing a fixed cash tax on land value.
1 mark for explaining it provided stable, predictable revenue for the government.
1 mark for linking revenue to investment in infrastructure or industry (e.g. railways, model factories).
1 mark for noting it shifted peasants into the cash economy, supporting market integration.
1 mark for explaining the burden on rural households and how this pushed migration or factory labour.
1 mark for linking these effects directly to supporting industrial growth.
(Maximum 6 marks.)
