OCR Specification focus:
‘Nature of change and emergence of Japan as a major power; ending of the power of the Samurai and changes in taxation, government and the army.’
The transformation of Japan during the Meiji era was rapid and revolutionary, shifting the nation from a feudal system into a modern state capable of competing with global powers.
The Nature of Change in the Meiji Era
The Meiji Restoration of 1868 represented a decisive break from the Tokugawa shogunate. Power shifted back to the emperor, and reformers sought to modernise Japan in order to prevent Western domination. Change was both political and social, underpinned by an urgent desire to strengthen national unity and military capability.
The Overthrow of the Samurai Class
A central pillar of reform was the deliberate dismantling of the samurai class, who had dominated Tokugawa Japan for centuries. The new government sought to reduce their privileges and create a society based on merit rather than hereditary status.
Samurai: The hereditary warrior class of feudal Japan who traditionally served daimyō lords, enjoying privileges including stipends and the right to wear swords.
From the 1870s, stipends were replaced with government bonds, eroding samurai economic security. The wearing of swords was prohibited under the Sword Abolishment Edict of 1876, symbolically stripping the samurai of their cultural identity.
The Emergence of a National Army
The end of the samurai paved the way for the establishment of a conscription-based military in 1873, modelled on Western powers. This signalled Japan’s commitment to modernisation and reflected the desire to defend national independence.
A page from the Hōrei Zensho (statute compilation) listing conscription numbers for 1873. It demonstrates the state’s move to universal military duty. Source
Universal conscription required all males to serve, reducing reliance on hereditary warriors.
Military structure and training drew heavily on European models, particularly the Prussian army.
The new army became a powerful tool of state authority and an emblem of Japan’s emergence as a modern power.
Political Reorganisation and Government Reform
Centralisation of power was vital to strengthen Japan against foreign threats. The Meiji leaders abolished the traditional domains of the daimyō and replaced them with prefectures controlled by central government officials.
Colour map showing Japan’s prefectural divisions in 1872, soon after the abolition of the han system. It visualises the shift from feudal domains to a centralised prefectural grid. Source
Daimyō: Powerful feudal lords who ruled over semi-autonomous domains in Tokugawa Japan, commanding loyalty from samurai retainers.
By the 1870s, a unified national government had been established, centred in Tokyo. A modern bureaucracy was created, drawing on talent rather than birthright, reflecting the Meiji emphasis on meritocracy. This reorganisation allowed for more effective tax collection and coordination of national policy.
Taxation and Economic Modernisation
The Land Tax Reform of 1873 was one of the most significant fiscal changes. Taxes were now paid in money rather than rice, ensuring a reliable cash flow for the government.
The tax was fixed at 3% of land value, though later reduced due to peasant protests.
This reform stabilised government revenue, enabling investment in military and industrial growth.
It also encouraged the development of a monetised economy, paving the way for capitalist enterprise.
The shift in taxation reduced the economic dominance of the landowning classes and gave the state greater financial independence. This was a critical step in Japan’s rise as a modern industrial power.
Social Change and the End of Hierarchy
The dismantling of the four-class system of Tokugawa Japan — samurai, peasants, artisans, merchants — was central to Meiji social policy. All subjects were declared equal under the law, and opportunities opened for mobility based on education and service to the state.
Education reforms paralleled social changes, with schools established nationwide to foster literacy and loyalty to the emperor. Although not the primary focus of this subsubtopic, these shifts illustrate the broader environment of transformation that allowed Japan to consolidate unity and national identity.
Symbolism of the Emperor
The restoration of the emperor was both a practical and symbolic step. As a sacred figure, the emperor provided a unifying focus for loyalty, helping to legitimise the dramatic restructuring of Japanese society.
Emergence of Japan as a Major Power
By the late 19th century, these reforms positioned Japan to project power beyond its borders. The abolition of the samurai, creation of a modern army, centralised government, and rational taxation system gave the state the necessary tools to compete with Western powers.
Key elements underpinning this emergence included:
Military strength: Conscription and modern training enhanced Japan’s capacity for warfare.
Economic security: Stable taxation funded industrialisation and armament.
Central control: Abolition of feudal domains consolidated authority under the emperor and bureaucracy.
National unity: The emperor provided a symbolic centre, replacing fractured feudal loyalties.
These transformations marked a profound shift in Japanese history. Within a generation, Japan had dismantled its feudal structures and replaced them with the institutions of a modern nation-state, laying the foundations for its role as a global power in the 20th century.
FAQ
The Meiji government wanted to eliminate hereditary privilege and create a system based on equality before the law. Retaining samurai status risked preserving feudal divisions and weakening national unity.
The cost of supporting samurai stipends was also financially unsustainable, and modern warfare required mass conscription rather than a narrow warrior elite.
The government employed military experts from Europe, especially from Prussia and France. These advisors helped to design training systems, organisational structures, and officer academies.
Prussian influence was strongest in discipline and staff organisation.
French influence shaped drill and tactics in the early years.
This guidance ensured Japan’s new conscript army matched contemporary European standards.
Farmers now had to pay taxes in money rather than rice. This was difficult for poorer peasants who lacked reliable access to cash.
When harvests failed or crop prices dropped, peasants still owed the fixed land tax, leading to hardship and occasional uprisings. Although the rate was reduced in 1877, resentment remained among rural communities.
The han were replaced with prefectures controlled by central officials. This stripped the daimyō of:
Their political authority over regional administration.
Economic power derived from taxation in their domains.
Military control over samurai retainers.
In exchange, daimyō were compensated with government bonds and noble titles, but their independence was permanently removed.
Conscription meant that all men, regardless of birth, could be called to serve in the army. This undermined the exclusive military role of the samurai.
It also brought peasants, merchants, and artisans into direct service of the state, fostering loyalty to the emperor rather than local lords.
By mixing men of different backgrounds in military service, conscription weakened the rigid four-class system of Tokugawa society.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two reforms introduced in the Meiji period that reduced the power of the samurai class.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each valid reform identified (maximum 2 marks).
Acceptable answers include:
Replacement of stipends with government bonds.
The Sword Abolishment Edict of 1876 (ban on wearing swords).
Introduction of universal conscription in 1873.
Abolition of hereditary privileges/status.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how the changes to government and the army during the Meiji period contributed to the emergence of Japan as a major power.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 2 marks for each developed explanation (maximum 6 marks).
Points may include:
Government reform: Abolition of the domains (han) and replacement with centrally controlled prefectures strengthened national unity (1 mark); this centralisation allowed for more effective coordination of taxation and policy (1 further mark).
Army reform: The 1873 conscription system created a modern army with universal service (1 mark); adopting European models (e.g., Prussian training) enhanced professionalism and effectiveness (1 further mark).
Combined impact: Together, centralised government and a modern army enabled Japan to defend against external threats and project power internationally (1–2 marks depending on depth).
Credit any other valid and relevant explanation that links reforms directly to Japan’s emergence as a major power.
