OCR Specification focus:
‘Nationalism, imperialism, militarism, war plans and navies, the Alliances and Ententes; the Anglo-German naval race; the Moroccan and Balkan Crises and the July crisis.
The origins of the First World War were deeply rooted in nationalism, militarism, imperialism, and diplomatic rivalries, creating a fragile balance of power across Europe.
Nationalism and its Impact
Nationalism was a powerful political and cultural force in late 19th and early 20th century Europe. It encouraged pride in one’s nation, resentment of rivals, and the pursuit of national destiny.
Nationalism in the Great Powers
Germany: Nationalism centred on the achievements of unification (1871) and a desire for recognition as a world power.
France: French nationalism was shaped by humiliation after defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, fuelling a drive for revanche (revenge).
Austria-Hungary: Nationalism was divisive rather than unifying, with many ethnic groups seeking independence, especially Slavs influenced by neighbouring Serbia and Russia.
Russia: Russian nationalism combined imperial expansionism with Pan-Slavism, the belief in unity and protection of Slavic peoples, particularly in the Balkans.
Britain: British nationalism was tied to its naval supremacy and global empire, fuelling determination to protect overseas interests.
Pan-Slavism: A nationalist movement that sought to unite all Slavic peoples under leadership, most often associated with Russian foreign policy.
Nationalist rivalries intensified tensions, particularly in the Balkans, where Slavic nationalism threatened Austria-Hungary’s cohesion.
Imperialism and Global Rivalries
Imperialism—the extension of power through colonies, conquest, or economic dominance—was another central cause of tension.
Germany’s late arrival to colonial competition created friction with Britain and France, as Germany sought a “place in the sun”.
France and Britain competed with Germany in Africa and Asia, leading to disputes such as the Moroccan Crises.
Austria-Hungary feared the erosion of influence in the Balkans as Serbia, backed by Russia, sought to expand.
Imperial rivalries extended European conflicts into global disputes, intertwining foreign policy with colonial prestige.
Militarism and the Growth of Armies
Militarism, the belief in the central role of military strength in national power, was widespread among the Great Powers.
Germany developed a highly professional and expanding army, supported by the Schlieffen Plan.
France increased conscription periods and built defensive strategies around fortifications like Verdun.
Russia committed to a huge standing army but struggled with modernisation.
Britain, though smaller in land forces, retained unmatched global prestige through its Royal Navy.
Militarism: The policy of maintaining strong armed forces and using them aggressively to defend or promote national interests.
Arms races, military timetables, and strategic planning made the outbreak of war more likely by encouraging rigid responses to crises.
War Plans and Strategic Thinking
The major powers relied on detailed war plans that emphasised speed and decisive victory.
Germany’s Schlieffen Plan: Designed to rapidly defeat France by invading through Belgium before turning to fight Russia.
Map of the Schlieffen Plan showing the main German right-wing thrust through Belgium and planned advances into France. French-British lines and fortifications are also indicated, clarifying operational assumptions. Source
France’s Plan XVII: Offensive operations aimed at regaining Alsace-Lorraine.
Russia’s mobilisation plans: Focused on swift concentration against both Germany and Austria-Hungary.
These war plans created inflexibility, as once mobilisation began, diplomacy became almost impossible.
Alliances and Ententes
By the early 20th century, Europe was divided into two alliance blocs, which deepened mistrust and increased the risk of a wider war.
Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
Triple Entente (1907): France, Russia, Britain
The alliances were defensive in nature, but in practice they bound powers together, meaning any regional conflict could escalate into a general war.
The map of Europe in 1914 highlights the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente, with neutral countries shown for context. It illustrates how alliances framed Europe’s balance of power. Source
The Anglo-German Naval Race
Britain and Germany entered a naval arms race that symbolised growing rivalry.
Britain’s naval strategy relied on the Two Power Standard, ensuring it had more warships than any two potential enemies combined.
Germany, under Kaiser Wilhelm II and Admiral Tirpitz, launched the Navy Laws (1898–1912) to build a battle fleet challenging Britain.
The British responded with the Dreadnought (1906), a revolutionary battleship that spurred further competition.
Photograph of HMS Dreadnought’s main battery showing two 12-inch guns, with smaller quick-firing guns visible above. The arrangement highlights the technological leap of dreadnought-era battleships. Source
The naval race worsened Anglo-German relations, fuelling suspicion and driving Britain into closer cooperation with France.
The Moroccan Crises
The First Moroccan Crisis (1905–06) and the Second Moroccan Crisis (Agadir, 1911) highlighted imperial tensions.
Germany challenged French influence in Morocco, aiming to test the strength of the Anglo-French Entente Cordiale.
Britain supported France, leading to increased Anglo-French military cooperation.
Germany’s diplomatic isolation became evident, especially after the 1911 crisis, reinforcing divisions in Europe.
The Balkan Crises
The Balkans were the “powder keg of Europe”, where nationalist and imperialist ambitions collided.
1908 Bosnian Crisis: Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, angering Serbia and Russia.
Balkan Wars (1912–13): Serbia emerged stronger, threatening Austria-Hungary’s position.
Russian backing for Serbia increased tension with Austria-Hungary and Germany.
Nationalism in the Balkans undermined stability and brought the Great Powers into direct confrontation.
The July Crisis of 1914
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo triggered the July Crisis.
Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia.
Russia mobilised to protect Serbia, Germany supported Austria-Hungary, and France backed Russia.
Germany’s “blank cheque” encouraged Austrian aggression.
Britain entered the war when Germany invaded Belgium, violating neutrality guaranteed by the 1839 Treaty of London.
The July Crisis demonstrated how alliances, militarism, nationalism, and war plans all combined to turn a regional dispute into a general European war.
FAQ
The assassination in Sarajevo (June 1914) was a culmination of long-standing instability. Earlier crises, like Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia in 1908 and the Balkan Wars (1912–13), had already heightened Serbian nationalism and resentment.
Austria-Hungary feared the growing influence of Serbia in the Balkans, while Russia felt obligated to protect Slavic interests. The assassination provided Austria-Hungary with a pretext to act decisively, but the crisis spiralled because the diplomatic environment had been poisoned by these previous confrontations.
Britain’s global power depended on maritime supremacy, and its Two Power Standard dictated that its navy must equal or surpass the next two largest navies combined.
Germany’s naval building programme threatened this standard, particularly after the Navy Laws of 1898 and 1900. Britain feared that Germany could eventually block trade routes or challenge control of the North Sea. This strategic anxiety led Britain to abandon its traditional policy of “splendid isolation” and align more closely with France and Russia.
Mass-circulation newspapers and nationalist organisations spread patriotic fervour and suspicion of rivals.
In Germany, groups like the Pan-German League promoted imperial expansion and military strength.
In France, nationalist press outlets continually reminded the public of Alsace-Lorraine and humiliated memories of 1871.
In Britain, the popular press warned of German naval ambitions and “spy scares,” fuelling hostility.
This climate limited governments’ room for diplomatic compromise, as leaders feared appearing weak at home.
The Schlieffen Plan relied on invading Belgium to outflank French forces. Britain was a guarantor of Belgian neutrality under the 1839 Treaty of London.
When Germany implemented the plan in August 1914, Britain was compelled to act both for treaty obligations and to prevent German domination of the Channel coast. The plan’s aggressive nature, prioritising swift conquest over diplomacy, directly pushed Britain into the conflict.
Germany hoped to exploit Moroccan disputes to test or weaken the Entente Cordiale between France and Britain.
In 1905, Germany attempted to assert Moroccan independence, but instead drove France and Britain closer together at the Algeciras Conference.
In 1911, the Agadir Crisis, sparked by Germany sending the gunboat Panther, reinforced German isolation as Britain again backed France.
Rather than splitting its rivals, these crises strengthened the Entente and left Germany increasingly encircled.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name two members of the Triple Entente in 1914
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correct country named (maximum 2 marks).
Acceptable answers: France, Russia, Britain (United Kingdom/Great Britain/England accepted).
Do not award marks for incorrect or extraneous answers (e.g. Italy, Germany).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why the Anglo-German naval race increased tensions in Europe before 1914.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 3 marks for each well-explained reason (maximum 6 marks).
Answers must identify a reason and provide explanation of how it created tension.
Indicative content:
Challenge to Britain’s naval supremacy (up to 3 marks): Germany’s building of a fleet through the Navy Laws was seen as a direct threat to Britain’s traditional naval dominance, which Britain regarded as essential for security. This alarmed Britain and pushed it closer to France.
The impact of the Dreadnought (1906) (up to 3 marks): Britain’s launch of HMS Dreadnought revolutionised naval warfare, spurring Germany to accelerate its own building programme. The resulting arms race deepened mistrust and rivalry between the two nations.
Partial explanation without clear development: 1–2 marks per reason.
Fully explained reason with accurate historical detail: 3 marks per reason.
