OCR Specification focus:
‘aims and policies of Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Russia and Great Britain; The nature of the war; main events on the Western Front, trench warfare’
The outbreak of the First World War reflected both long-term ambitions and short-term crises. Each power pursued distinct aims and policies that influenced the war’s course.
Aims and Policies of the Major Powers
Germany
Germany’s strategy was shaped by its desire for continental dominance. The Schlieffen Plan was central to its military policy.
A schematic of German war planning in 1914, showing the Schlieffen right-wing advance through Belgium into northern France, aiming to envelop Paris. It also depicts the French Plan XVII, clarifying how opposing strategies collided in the opening weeks. Source
Schlieffen Plan: A German war strategy developed by Count Alfred von Schlieffen, designed to quickly defeat France through Belgium before turning to fight Russia.
Germany sought hegemony in Europe, fearing encirclement by France and Russia.
Economic and colonial rivalry with Britain contributed to antagonism.
The government, under Kaiser Wilhelm II, embraced Weltpolitik (world policy), aiming for expansion and recognition as a global power.
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary aimed to preserve its fragile multi-ethnic empire.
Its overriding goal was to resist Slavic nationalism, particularly Serbian influence in the Balkans.
Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary pursued an aggressive stance, issuing an ultimatum to Serbia.
Austria’s reliance on Germany’s support, the “blank cheque,” emboldened its policies.
France
France’s foreign policy was largely defensive, rooted in its humiliation after the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71).
A key aim was the recovery of Alsace-Lorraine, lost to Germany.
France sought security through alliances with Russia (1894) and Britain (1904, the Entente Cordiale).
France mobilised its resources for a war of revanche (revenge) against Germany.
Russia
Russia’s ambitions were tied to both prestige and the Balkans.
Russia acted as the self-declared protector of Slavic peoples, supporting Serbia against Austria-Hungary.
The Pan-Slavism movement drove its policies.
Russia also sought control of the Straits of Constantinople, essential for access to warm-water ports.
Military modernisation lagged, but mobilisation plans were rigid once enacted.
Great Britain
Britain’s primary concern was the balance of power in Europe and the defence of its empire.
The Royal Navy was Britain’s main security tool, ensuring maritime supremacy.
Britain feared German naval expansion, which challenged its traditional dominance at sea.
While initially hesitant to commit to European wars, Britain entered due to the violation of Belgian neutrality in 1914.
British diplomacy was guided by preventing any single power from dominating Europe.
The Nature of the War
The Western Front
The war quickly became defined by the stalemate in the West. After the failure of the Schlieffen Plan and the German advance being halted at the First Battle of the Marne (1914), both sides dug in.
A 1914 British Army diagram of a fire trench with parapet, parados, bays, and traverses, showing how trenches mitigated blast and enfilade while sheltering riflemen. Labels make the defensive logic legible at a glance. Source
Trench warfare stretched from the English Channel to Switzerland.
Conditions were harsh: mud, disease, and high casualties were constant features.
Attempts at breakthroughs, such as at Verdun (1916) and the Somme (1916), produced massive losses with limited territorial gains.
The use of artillery barrages, poison gas, and machine guns reinforced defensive superiority.
Trench Warfare: A form of land warfare involving opposing sides occupying extensive networks of fortified trenches, leading to static, attritional fighting.
Military Technology
The First World War marked the introduction of industrialised warfare.
Machine guns, heavy artillery, and poison gas increased lethality.
New technologies such as tanks and aircraft were introduced, though their early effectiveness was limited.
The war was the first to see large-scale aerial reconnaissance and bombing.
War of Attrition
By 1915, the conflict was no longer a war of swift manoeuvres but of exhaustion.
Both sides aimed to wear down the enemy’s manpower and resources.
Blockades and economic warfare became central, with Britain’s naval blockade cutting German supplies.
Germany responded with unrestricted submarine warfare, targeting shipping to Britain.
Key Events on the Western Front
First Battle of the Marne (1914): Stopped the German advance, creating the trench lines.
Ypres (1914–15): Site of repeated battles; first use of poison gas.
Verdun (1916): Symbol of French resistance; enormous casualties on both sides.
The Somme (1916): British-led offensive, infamous for high casualties and limited success.
Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele, 1917): Characterised by mud and heavy losses.
German Spring Offensive (1918): Last major German push before collapse.
Hundred Days Offensive (1918): Allied advance that led to the Armistice.
Interconnection of Aims and War’s Nature
The war reflected the collision of national policies and military realities. Ambitions for security, prestige, and expansion clashed in a conflict dominated by defensive technology and attritional struggle. The strategies and aims of Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Russia, and Britain directly shaped both the outbreak and the destructive character of the war on the Western Front.
FAQ
Germany’s vision of Mitteleuropa involved establishing an economic and political bloc in Central and Eastern Europe dominated by Berlin.
This ambition encouraged aggressive expansion and justified the Schlieffen Plan as a means of defeating France quickly before consolidating control elsewhere.
It also influenced Germany’s harsh demands in 1914 and 1915, which alienated other powers and ensured the conflict became a struggle for European dominance rather than limited territorial adjustment.
Austria-Hungary’s empire contained numerous ethnic groups including Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, and Serbs.
The war inflamed nationalist sentiment, especially as the empire cracked down on perceived disloyalty.
Slavic soldiers were reluctant to fight against fellow Slavs in Serbia and Russia.
This internal fragility undermined morale and military effectiveness, making Austria-Hungary heavily dependent on German support.
France’s determination to recover Alsace-Lorraine gave its armies a strong symbolic focus.
After initial offensive failures, French leadership concentrated on holding territory at all costs, reflected in the slogan “They shall not pass” during Verdun.
This emphasis on resilience meant France endured huge losses but maintained national unity and morale, enabling it to withstand German pressure until Allied resources shifted the balance.
Russia possessed vast manpower but struggled to deploy it effectively.
Poor railway infrastructure meant troops were slow to reach the front.
Equipment shortages left many soldiers without rifles or ammunition.
Command structures were rigid, making adaptation difficult during fast-moving campaigns.
These weaknesses contributed to defeats at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes, showing how Russia’s aims outstripped its military capacity.
The Royal Navy not only enforced the blockade but safeguarded Britain’s global empire and supply lines.
It ensured vital imports of food and raw materials continued despite submarine threats.
Control of sea lanes allowed Britain to bring in troops from the empire and later the United States.
Naval dominance reassured allies and maintained Britain’s diplomatic credibility as a guarantor of the European balance of power.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Which two countries formed an alliance with France before 1914 to counter the threat from Germany?
Mark Scheme
1 mark for identifying Russia.
1 mark for identifying Britain (Entente Cordiale/Triple Entente context acceptable).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the Schlieffen Plan influenced the nature of the war on the Western Front between 1914 and 1918
Mark Scheme
1–2 marks: Basic description of the Schlieffen Plan (German attempt to quickly defeat France via Belgium before turning to Russia).
3–4 marks: Clear explanation of how its failure led to the Battle of the Marne and the establishment of trench lines.
5–6 marks: Developed analysis showing how this initial failure caused stalemate, entrenched warfare, and a prolonged war of attrition with major battles such as Verdun and the Somme.
To access top marks, answers must link the Plan’s failure to the long-term static nature of the Western Front and demonstrate understanding of its direct consequences.
