OCR Specification focus:
‘the Dumas; repression and reform under Stolypin; the political social and economic situation in Russia in 1914.’
Russia’s early twentieth-century politics were marked by conflict between autocracy and demands for reform. The Dumas and Stolypin’s policies defined a crucial phase in this struggle.
The Creation and Role of the Dumas
The Duma (parliament) was first established after the 1905 Revolution and the October Manifesto.
Chamber of the Russian State Duma in the Tauride Palace, used between 1906 and 1917. The semi-circular benches, rostrum and galleries reflect the parliamentary layout introduced after 1905. This architectural context helps explain why the Dumas symbolised change yet operated within strict tsarist limits. Source
The First Duma (1906)
Nicknamed the “Duma of National Hopes”, dominated by liberals and radicals.
Demanded sweeping reforms including land redistribution and expanded civil rights.
Dissolved by Nicholas II after only 72 days due to its confrontational stance.
The Second Duma (1907)
Known as the “Duma of National Anger”.
More radical than the first, containing many socialists.
Attempted to push for stronger reform but clashed with the government over military matters.
Disbanded by the Tsar after only a few months.
The Third Duma (1907–1912)
Electoral laws were altered by Stolypin to favour wealthier, conservative classes, especially landowners.
This produced a more compliant body, dominated by Octobrists and Rightists.
Able to pass some reforms, particularly concerning the military and administration.
The Fourth Duma (1912–1917)
Contained more critics of the government than the Third, yet still relatively conservative.
Continued to provide a platform for liberal opposition, though its influence was minimal compared to the Tsar’s dominance.
Octobrists: A moderate political group supportive of the October Manifesto and limited constitutional monarchy, advocating cooperation with the government rather than revolution.
The Dumas symbolised an attempt to modernise governance, but their restricted power and frequent dissolution revealed the limits of reform under Nicholas II.
Stolypin’s Policies: Repression and Reform
Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin (1906–1911) played a central role in shaping post-1905 Russia through a dual strategy of repression and reform.
Repressive Measures
Use of emergency powers to suppress revolutionary activity.
Thousands executed under what became known as “Stolypin’s necktie” (the hangman’s noose).
Harsh censorship, banning of radical newspapers and parties.
Military tribunals established to deal swiftly with insurgents.
Stolypin’s Necktie: Popular phrase referring to the widespread use of execution by hanging under Stolypin’s counter-revolutionary policies.
Reformist Policies
Despite repression, Stolypin pursued reforms to stabilise Russia:
Agrarian reforms aimed at creating a class of prosperous, loyal peasant farmers:
Peasants were encouraged to leave the Mir (village commune) and own land individually.
Conference of land-reform officials in St Petersburg, May 1911. The image captures the bureaucratic apparatus coordinating Stolypin’s agrarian programme. While it depicts personnel rather than fields, it directly evidences reform being organised at the centre. Source
Establishment of the Peasant Land Bank to provide loans for land purchases.
Incentives for resettlement in underdeveloped regions such as Siberia.
Improvements in education and local administration, though limited in scope.
Mir: A traditional Russian peasant village community where land was owned collectively and redistributed among households.
These reforms sought to reduce revolutionary unrest by giving peasants a stake in stability, though progress was uneven and often resisted by traditionalists.
Political, Social and Economic Situation in Russia in 1914
By the eve of the First World War, Russia remained deeply divided and fragile.
Political Situation
The autocracy of Nicholas II remained intact despite the Dumas.
Growing alienation of liberal groups, frustrated by the lack of genuine power in parliament.
Revolutionary parties (Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, Socialist Revolutionaries) remained active underground.
Social Situation
Peasant discontent persisted despite Stolypin’s reforms; most remained poor and tied to subsistence farming.
Urban workers faced poor conditions, low wages, and lack of rights, leading to frequent strikes.
Rising nationalist tensions among minority groups due to repression of local languages and cultures.
Economic Situation
Rapid industrial growth occurred in cities like St Petersburg and Moscow, with expansion in coal, iron, and textiles.
However, this growth was uneven and created new social tensions:
Urban overcrowding.
Strained infrastructure.
In agriculture, reforms had not yet transformed the countryside; only a minority of peasants benefited from Stolypin’s measures.
Bullet points for clarity:
Political: Autocracy vs. limited reform; weak parliaments.
Social: Peasant hardship, worker unrest, minority repression.
Economic: Growth in industry, limited agricultural progress, infrastructure weaknesses.
Russia in 1914 appeared stronger on the surface, but underlying instability would be exposed by the pressures of war.
FAQ
The June 1907 electoral law drastically reduced representation for peasants, workers, and national minorities, while boosting the influence of landowners and wealthier classes.
This shift ensured that the Third and Fourth Dumas were more conservative and cooperative, dominated by Octobrists and Rightists rather than radicals. It effectively curtailed the possibility of genuine reform through parliamentary channels.
Stolypin believed that the peasantry was the foundation of Russian society. By stabilising the countryside, he hoped to create a loyal class of prosperous farmers.
Industrial workers were viewed as more radical and harder to control, while peasants could be bound to the state if given land and opportunity. This explains the emphasis on breaking up the Mir and resettling peasants in Siberia.
Around 3 million peasants moved to Siberia under Stolypin’s resettlement schemes.
Some benefited from access to new land and opportunities.
Many, however, returned due to poor infrastructure, lack of support, or conflict with indigenous populations.
Overall, the scheme was only partially successful, exposing the limits of state-led resettlement.
Although conservative, the Fourth Duma increasingly criticised the government’s handling of domestic and foreign issues.
It provided a platform for liberal voices to press for reforms in administration, public health, and education. While still subordinate to the Tsar, its debates foreshadowed the growing discontent that would erupt in 1917.
Stolypin was assassinated in Kiev in 1911, creating a major setback for reformist efforts.
Without his leadership, agrarian reforms lost momentum, and political repression continued without the balancing element of reform. This left the autocracy increasingly rigid and unable to adapt to rising social and political tensions before 1914.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year was the First Duma convened, and why was it dissolved so quickly?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correct year: 1906.
1 mark for explaining reason: e.g. it was too radical, demanded sweeping reforms, or clashed with the Tsar/government.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Stolypin’s policies combined both repression and reform in the years 1906–1911.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for repression:
Mention of “Stolypin’s necktie” (executions by hanging).
Use of military tribunals/emergency powers.
Censorship or banning of radical parties/newspapers.
Up to 3 marks for reform:
Agrarian reform (encouraging peasants to leave the Mir and own land individually).
Peasant Land Bank loans to purchase land.
Resettlement schemes in Siberia or attempts to modernise education/administration.
Level descriptors:
1–2 marks: Basic description of either repression or reform with limited detail.
3–4 marks: Clear explanation of both repression and reform, but coverage may be uneven.
5–6 marks: Detailed and balanced explanation of both repression and reform, with accurate examples.
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