OCR Specification focus:
‘The impact of the First World War 1914–1917, defeats, losses, economic dislocation, food shortages, transport problems, inflation; Nicholas’ leadership; Rasputin.’
The First World War transformed Russia’s political, economic, and social landscape, exposing weaknesses in Tsarist leadership and deepening crises that would ultimately culminate in revolution by 1917.
Russia’s Entry into the First World War
In August 1914, Russia entered the war with patriotic enthusiasm, with Nicholas II seeking to bolster his legitimacy through national unity. However, Russia faced enormous challenges:
Poor industrial development compared to Germany and Austria-Hungary.
A weak infrastructure, particularly limited railway networks.
Inadequate equipment, with many soldiers lacking rifles or boots.
Initial optimism quickly gave way to disillusionment as defeats mounted and the strains of modern warfare overwhelmed the Russian state.
Military Defeats and Heavy Losses
Russia suffered catastrophic defeats in the opening stages of the war:
Battle of Tannenberg (August 1914): Russian forces were encircled and lost around 300,000 men, shattering morale.
Masurian Lakes (September 1914): Another defeat forced Russian retreat from East Prussia.
By 1917, Russia had experienced approximately 7 million casualties (killed, wounded, or taken prisoner). The poorly trained conscript army was repeatedly humiliated, while military leadership was plagued by incompetence and rivalry.
Casualty: A soldier killed, wounded, captured, or missing in action.
Defeat had political consequences, eroding confidence in Nicholas II’s leadership and raising support for anti-Tsarist movements.
Early disasters included Tannenberg (August 1914) and the Masurian Lakes (1914–15), where the Russian Second and First Armies suffered shattering defeats.
Economic Dislocation and Strain
The war effort imposed unbearable burdens on Russia’s fragile economy.
Mobilisation diverted millions of peasants from the countryside, undermining agricultural production.
Industrial production was redirected towards armaments, leaving shortages of consumer goods.
Government borrowing and increased printing of money led to spiralling inflation, with prices quadrupling between 1914 and 1917.
Food scarcity was compounded by hoarding and breakdowns in supply lines. Soldiers often looted farms, while peasants grew reluctant to sell grain for devalued currency.
Inflation: A sustained rise in the general price level of goods and services, reducing the purchasing power of money.
Urban workers faced rapidly declining living standards, with wages lagging far behind prices.
Food Shortages and Famine Threat
Food shortages became acute in the cities:
Bread queues stretched for hours, particularly in Petrograd and Moscow.
The requisitioning of horses and fertilisers for the army reduced agricultural productivity.
Disruption of trade routes, especially the closure of the Black Sea by the Ottoman Empire, further restricted supplies.
These shortages fuelled discontent, intensifying strikes and demonstrations.
Transport Problems
Russia’s underdeveloped railway system collapsed under the pressure of war.
Overloaded lines struggled to deliver both military supplies and food.
Military priority meant urban areas often went without essential goods.
Blocked transport routes resulted in grain rotting in the countryside while cities starved.
The transport crisis highlighted Russia’s lack of modern infrastructure and contributed directly to urban unrest.
Nicholas II’s Leadership and Failings
Nicholas’ leadership was fatally undermined by his decision in September 1915 to assume direct command of the Russian army.
He lacked military expertise and was personally blamed for defeats.
By leaving Petrograd, he ceded control of the government to Tsarina Alexandra, whose reliance on Rasputin discredited the monarchy.
Nicholas’ stubborn commitment to autocracy prevented him from working constructively with the Duma, alienating moderate reformers who might have stabilised his regime.
His absence from the capital reinforced the perception of a detached and incompetent ruler, accelerating political opposition.
Nicholas’ leadership was fatally undermined by his decision in September 1915 to assume direct command of the Russian army.
Nicholas II with Tsarevich Alexei at Stavka circa 1916. The image underscores the Tsar’s role as Supreme Commander, a move that tied battlefield failure to his personal authority. It visually supports discussion of leadership misjudgements during the war. Source
Rasputin and the Crisis of Legitimacy
The influence of Grigori Rasputin, a mystic close to the Tsarina, further damaged the monarchy’s credibility.
Rasputin’s alleged sexual misconduct and corruption became public scandals.
His interference in ministerial appointments created instability; between 1915 and 1916, Russia had four prime ministers, three foreign ministers, and six interior ministers.
Nobles and conservatives who once supported Nicholas began to conspire against him, believing Rasputin’s influence endangered the dynasty.
Autocracy: A system of government in which supreme power is concentrated in the hands of one individual, with little or no legal or institutional constraints.
By late 1916, Rasputin’s assassination by aristocrats symbolised the desperation of elites to rescue the monarchy, but it was too late to restore confidence.
Social and Political Consequences
The cumulative effect of defeats, shortages, and poor leadership destabilised Russian society:
Strikes increased in major cities, especially among industrial workers.
Soldiers’ morale collapsed, with desertions becoming widespread.
The Duma grew increasingly critical of government incompetence, demanding reforms Nicholas refused.
Middle-class support for the regime eroded, leaving the Tsar politically isolated.
The First World War thus magnified existing political, social, and economic tensions, ensuring that by early 1917 the Tsarist regime faced a revolutionary situation from which it could not recover.
FAQ
Russia’s railways were already underdeveloped before 1914, with limited routes and outdated equipment.
The war placed overwhelming demands on the system:
Troop movements and military supplies were given priority.
Rolling stock and engines were poorly maintained due to shortages.
Coal and fuel scarcity reduced efficiency.
As a result, food and raw materials could not be delivered to cities, worsening shortages.
Inflation hit urban workers hardest, as wages failed to keep pace with rising food and fuel prices.
Middle-class Russians also saw savings eroded, undermining their previous loyalty to the regime.
Peasants were less affected initially, since they produced their own food, but many withheld grain from markets as currency became worthless.
The army seized horses, livestock, and fertilisers to support the war effort.
This damaged agricultural productivity and reduced peasants’ ability to feed their families.
Many peasants grew reluctant to sell grain for money that was rapidly losing value, instead hoarding supplies. This created resentment towards both local officials and the central government.
Early defeats like Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes spread quickly through newspapers and word of mouth.
Confidence in the army declined, while families endured grief from mass casualties.
The sense of humiliation was heightened by comparisons with better-equipped German and Austrian forces.
This eroded trust in Nicholas II, who by 1915 was directly associated with failures as commander-in-chief.
Rasputin appeared to exercise undue influence over ministerial appointments and state decisions through his closeness to Tsarina Alexandra.
Nobles and politicians were scandalised by his reputation for corruption and immoral behaviour, which they felt discredited the monarchy.
Many elites believed his influence was a threat to national stability, leading to conspiracies that culminated in his assassination in December 1916.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Give two reasons why food shortages became worse in Russia during the First World War.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correct reason identified (maximum 2 marks).
Acceptable answers include:Requisitioning of horses and fertilisers by the army reduced agricultural productivity.
Poor transport and overloaded railways prevented grain reaching the cities.
Inflation discouraged peasants from selling grain.
Military priority meant food supplies to urban areas were disrupted.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how Nicholas II’s leadership during the First World War weakened support for the Tsarist regime.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
General or limited statements about Nicholas II’s leadership with little detail or explanation.
Example: “Nicholas II made bad decisions and people stopped supporting him.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Some relevant explanation of how his leadership undermined support, but lacking detail or balance.
May mention his taking command of the army or leaving the Tsarina and Rasputin in control.
Example: “Nicholas II took control of the army but he was not a good commander, so people blamed him for defeats.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Clear, developed explanation of at least two ways in which Nicholas II’s leadership undermined support, supported by accurate knowledge.
Points may include:
Decision to assume personal command in 1915 tied military defeats directly to him.
His absence left Tsarina Alexandra and Rasputin in charge, which damaged credibility.
Failure to cooperate with the Duma alienated moderates.
Well-supported explanation showing how these factors weakened political and public confidence.
