OCR Specification focus:
‘The impact of the Hungarian Rising 1956, the Czech Crisis 1968 and events in Poland 1956 and 1980–1981; developments in Germany, including rearmament of the Federal Republic and its inclusion’
The 1956 Hungarian Rising and Germany’s post-war developments illustrate the tensions of the Cold War, showing both Soviet control in Eastern Europe and Western strategies in divided Germany.
Background to the Hungarian Rising 1956
Hungary’s position in the Eastern Bloc after the Second World War was defined by its forced alignment with the Soviet Union. Following the imposition of a communist regime under Mátyás Rákosi, Hungary became a one-party state loyal to Moscow. Discontent grew due to political repression, secret police activity, and severe economic hardship.
Causes of the Uprising
• Death of Stalin (1953) created hopes of reform, especially after Nikita Khrushchev began a policy of de-Stalinisation, promising more freedom in satellite states.
• Harsh economic conditions and resentment of Soviet dominance encouraged popular opposition.
• Inspiration from Poland’s 1956 protests, where limited concessions were gained, gave Hungarians confidence to demand change.
De-Stalinisation: The policy initiated by Khrushchev to reduce the repressive control and personality cult established under Joseph Stalin.
Key Events of the Rising
• October 1956: Mass demonstrations in Budapest demanded the withdrawal of Soviet troops and democratic reforms.
• Reformist Imre Nagy became Prime Minister, announcing multi-party elections and, crucially, Hungary’s intention to leave the Warsaw Pact.
• Early November: The Soviet Union launched a massive military intervention with tanks and troops, crushing resistance after several days of intense street fighting.
On 4 November 1956, the USSR sent in overwhelming force to Budapest, crushing the uprising and executing a brutal restoration of control.
Impact on Hungary
• Casualties and repression: Around 2,500 Hungarians killed; thousands more imprisoned or executed, including Nagy in 1958.
• Refugee crisis: Over 200,000 fled to the West, revealing the unpopularity of Soviet rule.
• Demonstrated the limits of Western influence—the United States offered no military support, fearing escalation into a direct East–West conflict.
• Reinforced Soviet authority in Eastern Europe and warned other satellite states against challenging Moscow.
Wider Cold War Significance
The Hungarian Rising exposed the contradiction of Soviet liberalisation, proving that while Khrushchev spoke of reform, the USSR would use force to maintain control. It also highlighted Western constraints: the Eisenhower administration limited its response to condemnation and humanitarian aid, showing that containment did not mean direct military action inside the Soviet sphere.
Developments in Germany
While Hungary underscored Soviet dominance in the East, Germany demonstrated how the Cold War shaped Western defence and integration.
Division of Germany
• After 1945, Germany was split into Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) in the West and German Democratic Republic (GDR) in the East.
By 1949 Germany was divided into the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) in the West and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in the East.
Locator map highlighting West Germany (FRG) and East Germany (GDR) within Europe. Use it to anchor discussion of German division, border consolidation, and the context for FRG rearmament. Source
Rearmament of the Federal Republic
• Early 1950s: Western powers debated rearming the FRG to strengthen European defence against Soviet aggression.
• In 1955, the FRG was admitted to NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and authorised to build the Bundeswehr, its own armed forces.
• Rearmament was controversial in West Germany and provoked a strong Soviet response, intensifying the arms race.
In May 1955 the Federal Republic of Germany joined NATO, beginning rearmament with the creation of the Bundeswehr.
Paris, May 1955: NATO Council session marking the admission of the Federal Republic of Germany. Delegations are seated with national flags visible, underscoring the diplomatic significance of FRG entry. This image focuses on the accession setting; it does not depict the Bundeswehr itself. Source
NATO: A military alliance formed in 1949 between Western nations, committing members to mutual defence against external attack.
Soviet Reaction: The Warsaw Pact
• As a direct counter to NATO expansion and West German rearmament, the USSR established the Warsaw Pact in May 1955.
• This bound Eastern European states into a formal military alliance under Soviet command, reinforcing the bipolar military balance of the Cold War.
Social and Political Effects
• West Germany’s integration into the Western alliance boosted its economy and international status, symbolising the success of capitalist reconstruction.
• East Germany tightened political control under Walter Ulbricht, with increased surveillance and restrictions to prevent defection to the West, foreshadowing the later construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961.
Interconnected Cold War Dynamics
The events in Hungary and the rearmament of the FRG must be seen together: • Demonstration of Superpower Resolve: Soviet brutality in Hungary mirrored Western commitment to strengthening West Germany as a bulwark against communism.
• Ideological Confrontation: Both crises showed the competing systems of capitalism and communism hardening their positions.
• Shift in Strategy: The USA focused on containment through alliances and military preparedness, while the USSR enforced strict discipline in its sphere.
These developments underscore the volatile balance of power in Europe during the 1950s, where local uprisings and strategic decisions in Germany directly influenced the trajectory of the Cold War.
FAQ
Radio Free Europe (RFE), funded by the United States, broadcast uncensored news and anti-communist messages into Eastern Europe.
During the Hungarian Rising it encouraged protestors by reporting on Western sympathy and implying, though never formally promising, outside support.
Some historians argue that these broadcasts unintentionally raised Hungarian expectations of Western military assistance, which never came, deepening the sense of betrayal after the Soviet crackdown.
Nagy aimed to dismantle the Stalinist system imposed by Mátyás Rákosi. Key proposals included:
• Legalising non-communist political parties and planning free elections.
• Declaring neutrality and seeking withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact.
• Expanding press freedom and ending the secret police’s repressive role.
These measures contrasted sharply with the rigid, one-party communist rule that had dominated Hungary since the late 1940s.
Memories of the Second World War made many West Germans wary of rebuilding armed forces.
• Pacifist movements, trade unions, and church groups feared militarism’s return.
• Some argued rearmament might provoke the Soviet Union and risk another conflict.
• Political opponents of Chancellor Adenauer accused him of prioritising Western alignment over reunification with the East.
Despite protests, Adenauer secured parliamentary approval by emphasising collective defence within NATO rather than independent militarism.
The Korean War (1950–1953) highlighted the need for stronger European defences, while rapid West German economic recovery, known as the Wirtschaftswunder (economic miracle), showed the FRG could sustain military spending.
A prosperous FRG offered:
• Industrial output to supply NATO forces.
• Financial stability to fund defence without heavy American subsidies.
These factors convinced Western leaders that West Germany could be both a frontline defence and a dependable economic partner.
The USSR framed the intervention as necessary to preserve socialist unity and protect Hungarian workers from “counter-revolutionary” forces.
Official statements portrayed the uprising as a fascist-inspired plot supported by Western imperialists.
By presenting the crackdown as a defence of socialism rather than aggression, Moscow sought to maintain credibility among other communist states and within the United Nations, where it vetoed condemnations of its actions.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two key reasons why the Soviet Union intervened militarily in Hungary in November 1956.
Mark Scheme
Award 1 mark for each valid reason, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Accept any of the following:
To prevent Hungary leaving the Warsaw Pact.
To maintain Soviet control and influence over Eastern Europe.
To suppress the move towards multi-party democracy and free elections announced by Imre Nagy.
To discourage similar uprisings in other satellite states.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how the rearmament of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) increased tensions between the superpowers in the 1950s.
Mark Scheme
Award up to 5 marks.
1–2 marks: Basic description of FRG rearmament or NATO membership without clear link to superpower tensions.
3–4 marks: Clear explanation of how FRG entry into NATO (1955) and creation of the Bundeswehr alarmed the USSR, prompting the Warsaw Pact, showing increased East–West rivalry.
5 marks: Well-developed analysis of both Western and Soviet perspectives, for example: Western aim to strengthen defence against the USSR; Soviet view that FRG rearmament threatened the balance of power and justified tighter control over Eastern Europe.
