OCR Specification focus:
‘Reform and development of apartheid under Verwoerd.’
Introduction
During the late 1950s and early 1960s, South Africa underwent significant political transformation as Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd intensified and restructured apartheid, embedding racial segregation within every sphere of governance and society.
Background to Verwoerd’s Leadership
In 1958, Hendrik Verwoerd became Prime Minister of South Africa, succeeding J.G. Strijdom. He is often referred to as the “Architect of Apartheid”, a term highlighting his pivotal role in reshaping segregation into an organised and legally codified system. His government aimed to entrench white supremacy by refining racial classification and systematically separating South Africa’s population into distinct racial groups.
Apartheid: A policy of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination enforced by the South African government from 1948 to the early 1990s, designed to maintain white minority rule.
Verwoerd believed that complete separation of races—political, economic, and social—would preserve white control while presenting an image of granting limited autonomy to Black South Africans.
Strengthening Legal Foundations of Apartheid
Verwoerd’s administration reinforced and extended the network of apartheid laws initiated by previous National Party governments.
Population Registration Act and Group Areas Act
Population Registration Act (1950): Expanded under Verwoerd to categorise every South African as White, Black (African), Coloured, or Indian, with sub-classifications for greater control.
Group Areas Act (1950): Intensified enforcement of residential segregation, designating specific urban areas for each racial group and leading to mass forced removals.
Pass Laws
Pass Laws required Black South Africans to carry identification documents (passes) at all times, controlling movement into urban “white” areas.
Verwoerd’s government tightened these restrictions, increasing arrests and prosecutions for pass offences.
Education and Cultural Policies
Bantu Education Act (1953): Implemented fully during Verwoerd’s tenure. It restricted Black education to basic skills deemed necessary for low-wage labour, denying access to higher-quality schooling.
Bantu Education: An education system for Black South Africans designed to provide limited, inferior schooling to reinforce economic and social subordination.
Creation of the Bantustan System
A central feature of Verwoerd’s policy was the establishment of Bantustans, or “homelands”, designed to allocate separate territories to Black ethnic groups.
Map showing the fragmented Bantustans designated for different African ethnic groups under apartheid. It illustrates how "separate development" confined political rights and residence to homelands, reflecting the homeland structure advanced under Verwoerd. Source
Key Features
Promotion of “Separate Development”: Each homeland was intended to be a self-governing national unit for different African ethnic groups (e.g., Xhosa, Zulu).
Citizenship of Black South Africans was tied to these homelands, effectively stripping them of South African citizenship.
Bantu Authorities Act (1951) and subsequent legislation gave local chiefs administrative power, but these areas lacked true sovereignty.
Impact
Created a façade of autonomy while ensuring economic dependency on white-controlled South Africa.
Forced removals displaced millions to underdeveloped rural areas, breaking urban Black communities.
Political Reforms and the Republic
Verwoerd also pushed constitutional changes to secure Afrikaner nationalist power.
Republican Referendum of 1960
White voters narrowly approved the creation of a Republic of South Africa, severing remaining ties with Britain.
On 31 May 1961, South Africa became a republic and left the Commonwealth of Nations, partly due to international criticism of apartheid.
Consolidation of Afrikaner Power
Strengthened the National Party’s grip through electoral changes that marginalised English-speaking opposition and further excluded non-white voters.
Economic and Social Dimensions
Verwoerd’s reforms influenced South Africa’s economy and social order.
Labour Control: Black workers were restricted to unskilled or semi-skilled jobs. Trade unions for Black workers were severely limited.
Industrial Development: The government promoted state-run enterprises and economic growth to benefit the white population while keeping Black wages low.
Social Segregation: Facilities such as hospitals, transport, and public amenities were strictly segregated, reinforcing racial hierarchies.
Resistance and Repression
Opposition to Verwoerd’s policies grew domestically and internationally.
Internal Resistance
African National Congress (ANC) and Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) intensified protests, including mass demonstrations against pass laws.
The 1960 Sharpeville Massacre, where police killed 69 peaceful protestors, shocked the world and marked a turning point in anti-apartheid struggle.
Row of graves of the 69 Sharpeville victims in Phelindaba Cemetery, commemorating protestors killed during anti-pass demonstrations on 21 March 1960. Source
Sharpeville Massacre: The killing of 69 anti-pass law protestors by South African police on 21 March 1960, leading to a state of emergency and global condemnation.
Government Response
Banning of the ANC and PAC.
Introduction of stricter security laws allowing detention without trial and broader powers for police and military.
International Reaction
Widespread criticism from the United Nations and Commonwealth countries.
Imposition of limited economic and cultural sanctions, though major powers maintained economic ties due to strategic interests.
Assassination and Legacy
In September 1966, Verwoerd was assassinated in parliament by Dimitri Tsafendas. However, the apartheid system he strengthened endured for decades.
His policies institutionalised racial segregation and political disenfranchisement, laying the groundwork for continued resistance and international isolation.
The Bantustan framework persisted as a cornerstone of apartheid until the early 1990s.
These developments under Verwoerd exemplify the reform and development of apartheid, fulfilling the OCR specification requirement to understand how apartheid evolved from initial segregation into a comprehensive and oppressive state system during his tenure.
FAQ
Verwoerd’s academic training in psychology informed his belief that racial groups were fundamentally distinct and should be developed separately.
His experience as editor of Die Transvaler, an influential Afrikaner nationalist newspaper, strengthened his political skills and ability to communicate apartheid ideology to the white electorate. This combination of intellectual and media expertise helped him present segregation as a logical, almost scientific policy while mobilising Afrikaner support.
He argued that creating self-governing homelands provided political independence to Black ethnic groups, portraying apartheid as a process of “decolonisation within South Africa.”
Verwoerd compared Bantustans to newly independent African states, claiming that South Africa was granting similar autonomy. This rhetoric sought to deflect accusations of oppression, even though the homelands lacked real economic viability or sovereignty.
The government channelled limited subsidies and development grants to Bantustans, focusing on minimal infrastructure such as roads and basic services.
However, these investments were deliberately inadequate.
Industries were rarely established, forcing Black workers to seek employment in white-controlled urban areas.
Labour migration ensured continued access to cheap Black labour while avoiding the costs of full integration.
Afrikaner nationalism sought cultural and political independence from Britain as well as racial dominance.
Verwoerd’s policies—such as making South Africa a republic and promoting Afrikaans in schools and government—reflected this drive. These measures solidified Afrikaner identity, aligning white political power with cultural pride and reinforcing support for apartheid among Afrikaner voters.
Post-Sharpeville, the government expanded its security apparatus:
The 1963 General Law Amendment Act allowed 90-day detention without trial.
The South African Police Special Branch received greater powers to interrogate and monitor opposition groups.
New censorship laws curtailed anti-apartheid publications and restricted public gatherings.
These tactics aimed to suppress both armed resistance and peaceful protest, ensuring the endurance of Verwoerd’s strengthened apartheid system.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two key features of the Bantustan policy introduced under Hendrik Verwoerd.
Mark Scheme
Award 1 mark for each accurate feature identified, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Separate territories or “homelands” allocated to different African ethnic groups. (1)
Black South Africans were made citizens of these homelands, stripping them of South African citizenship. (1)
Local chiefs were given limited administrative power under the Bantu Authorities Act. (1)
Any other relevant and accurate feature may be credited.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how the Sharpeville Massacre of 1960 affected opposition to apartheid within South Africa.
Mark Scheme
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic description with limited detail, e.g. simple statements such as “It made people angry” or “Protests increased,” with little or no explanation.
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Developed explanation showing understanding of effects, e.g. “The massacre led to a state of emergency and the banning of the ANC and PAC, forcing them to operate underground.” Some supporting factual detail.
Level 3 (5 marks): Clear, well-supported explanation covering multiple effects, such as:
Escalation of resistance with the ANC and PAC adopting more radical or militant strategies.
Government response with detention without trial and tighter security laws.
Greater international condemnation and increased pressure on the apartheid regime.
Answers at this level use precise evidence (e.g. 69 killed, state of emergency) to show depth of understanding.
