OCR Specification focus:
‘relations between Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt (and later Truman and Attlee)’
The origins of the Cold War in Europe required careful diplomacy between the Allied leaders as their wartime alliance gradually gave way to ideological suspicion and rivalry.
The Grand Alliance and Its Fractures
In 1941, the Grand Alliance of Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union formed a critical partnership against Nazi Germany. Yet beneath this cooperation lay profound ideological differences. Capitalism, emphasising private ownership and free markets, contrasted sharply with Communism, a system advocating collective ownership and the abolition of class distinctions. These competing worldviews shaped the interactions between the Allied leaders.
Key Personalities
Joseph Stalin: Leader of the USSR, determined to secure Soviet borders and spread communist influence in Eastern Europe.
Winston Churchill: British Prime Minister committed to maintaining Britain’s global influence and wary of Soviet expansion.
Franklin D. Roosevelt: US President seeking post-war international cooperation but balancing American democratic ideals with the necessity of Soviet partnership.
Harry S. Truman: Roosevelt’s successor in 1945, less trusting of Stalin and more openly committed to containing communism.
Clement Attlee: Replaced Churchill after the July 1945 UK election, prioritising British reconstruction while continuing to resist Soviet expansionism.
Early Relations: Wartime Necessity
Initially, relations were shaped by the shared goal of defeating Hitler. Stalin pressed for a Second Front in Western Europe to relieve pressure on Soviet forces, while Churchill and Roosevelt delayed until 1944, fostering suspicion in Moscow. The alliance’s cooperation masked growing distrust:
The USSR’s Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939) still lingered in Western memory.
Britain and the United States worried about Soviet ambitions in Eastern Europe.
Stalin resented the delay of the D-Day invasion, interpreting it as a strategy to weaken the USSR.
Diplomatic Encounters
Tehran Conference (November 1943)
The first major meeting of the “Big Three” demonstrated both unity and tension.
Agreement on the Second Front in France.
Discussions about post-war Poland highlighted disputes: Stalin wanted Polish borders shifted westwards; Churchill and Roosevelt were cautious.
Cooperation on the creation of an international organisation (later the United Nations).
Yalta Conference (February 1945)
This conference marked both collaboration and growing conflict.
Colour photograph of Winston Churchill (left), Franklin D. Roosevelt (centre), and Joseph Stalin (right) at the Yalta Conference, February 1945, illustrating Allied cooperation amid rising tension. Source
Agreement on dividing Germany into four occupation zones.
High-resolution map of post-war Germany showing U.S., British, French, and Soviet occupation zones, including Berlin as a special multinational area within the Soviet zone. Source
Commitment to free elections in Eastern Europe, though Stalin’s interpretation of “democracy” differed from the Western view.
USSR promised to join the war against Japan after Germany’s defeat.
Disagreements over Poland’s government intensified Western suspicion of Soviet motives.
Potsdam Conference (July 1945)
Held after Germany’s surrender, Potsdam reflected shifting power dynamics.
Colour group portrait of Clement Attlee (left), Harry S. Truman (centre), and Joseph Stalin (right) at the Potsdam Conference, July–August 1945, marking leadership change and shifting post-war priorities. Source
Truman replaced Roosevelt, bringing a more confrontational tone.
Attlee replaced Churchill midway through the conference.
The United States tested the atomic bomb, giving it a significant strategic advantage and increasing Stalin’s distrust.
Disagreements over Germany’s reparations and Eastern Europe’s political future revealed the depth of ideological divisions.
Ideological Tensions
The ideological clash between capitalism and communism underpinned deteriorating relations. Stalin sought a buffer zone of friendly governments in Eastern Europe to protect the USSR, while Britain and the United States viewed such expansion as aggressive. Western leaders championed self-determination, but often selectively, depending on strategic interests.
Buffer Zone: A region of allied or controlled states used to protect a nation from potential invasion or influence by hostile powers.
Transition from Roosevelt to Truman
The death of Roosevelt in April 1945 marked a turning point. Truman was less willing to compromise, adopting a firm stance against Soviet expansion. His belief in the need to contain communism foreshadowed policies like the Truman Doctrine.
Impact of Leadership Change
Roosevelt’s diplomacy focused on maintaining unity to secure peace through the United Nations.
Truman’s assertiveness exacerbated tensions, particularly regarding Poland and German reparations.
Britain’s Changing Role
Britain emerged from the war economically weakened. Churchill’s determination to restrain Soviet influence gave way to Attlee’s focus on domestic recovery. Yet both leaders shared the goal of preventing communist domination of Europe.
British Concerns
Maintaining influence in the Mediterranean and Greece.
Supporting Western European recovery while opposing Soviet-backed regimes.
Seeds of the Cold War
By late 1945, the wartime alliance had transformed into mutual suspicion. Key factors included:
Stalin’s refusal to allow genuine free elections in Poland and other Eastern European countries.
Western reluctance to share atomic technology with the USSR.
Conflicting visions for Germany’s future: economic integration versus heavy reparations.
Bullet points highlighting emerging fault lines:
Ideological incompatibility between capitalism and communism.
Soviet occupation and influence across Eastern Europe.
US monopoly on the atomic bomb and its use in Japan.
Competing economic goals: Western reconstruction versus Soviet reparations.
Legacy for the Cold War
The relationships between Stalin, Churchill, Roosevelt, Truman, and Attlee set the stage for the Cold War. Their interactions at Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam illustrated how wartime cooperation could not overcome ideological divisions. Strategic disagreements, mutual distrust, and leadership changes ensured that by the end of 1945, the alliance had fractured into the rival blocs that would define international politics for the next half-century.
FAQ
Churchill’s long career in imperial politics made him wary of Soviet expansion and protective of Britain’s global influence.
Roosevelt’s experience of leading a diverse coalition at home fostered a belief in negotiation and international cooperation, making him more willing to work with Stalin during wartime.
Stalin’s memories of repeated invasions from the West, including the First World War and the Russian Civil War, hardened his desire for a secure buffer zone and deepened his suspicion of Western intentions.
Stalin insisted on a pro-Soviet government in Poland to guarantee Soviet security.
Britain supported the London-based Polish government-in-exile, seeking genuine democratic elections.
Roosevelt aimed for compromise but was under pressure from Polish-American communities.
This clash over Poland symbolised wider disagreements on self-determination versus Soviet strategic needs, becoming an early flashpoint in post-war diplomacy.
The successful test at Alamogordo gave the United States a decisive military advantage.
Truman used this knowledge to adopt a firmer negotiating stance, particularly on Eastern European issues.
Stalin, informed by Soviet intelligence of the bomb’s existence, accelerated the Soviet atomic programme and became more determined to secure territorial and political control in Eastern Europe.
Attlee focused on post-war reconstruction, including establishing the welfare state and managing severe economic constraints.
These priorities meant he avoided major confrontations with the USSR unless vital British interests—such as Mediterranean influence and access to trade routes—were threatened.
His pragmatic approach helped maintain Britain’s voice in negotiations despite diminishing global power.
Informal meetings, private dinners, and one-on-one discussions often revealed personal trust—or lack thereof—between the leaders.
Roosevelt’s rapport with Stalin at Yalta contrasted with Truman’s blunt exchanges at Potsdam.
These shifts in personal tone reinforced policy divisions, making it harder to sustain the cooperative spirit that had existed during the fight against Nazi Germany.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two key agreements made at the Yalta Conference of February 1945.
Mark Scheme
Award 1 mark for each correct agreement, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Acceptable answers include:
Agreement to divide Germany into four occupation zones.
Commitment to free elections in Eastern Europe (as understood by the Western Allies).
Soviet promise to join the war against Japan after Germany’s defeat.
Agreement to establish the United Nations.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how the change in leadership from Roosevelt to Truman affected relations between the United States and the Soviet Union in 1945.
Mark Scheme
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic statements, e.g. “Truman did not trust Stalin,” with little or no explanation.
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Clear explanation of at least one way in which relations were affected, such as Truman’s more confrontational approach compared with Roosevelt’s diplomacy, and the impact this had on negotiations at Potsdam.
Level 3 (5 marks): Developed explanation of multiple factors, for example:
Truman’s firmer stance on Soviet expansion and Polish elections.
The influence of the U.S. atomic bomb test on his negotiating position.
How these factors increased Soviet suspicion and contributed to early Cold War tensions.
