OCR Specification focus:
‘Strengths and weaknesses of and threats to Apartheid by 1978; PW Botha, Total Onslaught, Total Strategy and consequences of his reforms for National Party and White, Black and Coloured South’
South Africa in the late 1970s faced a decisive moment. Apartheid’s survival appeared secure yet was undermined by economic strain, internal dissent, and external pressure demanding fundamental change.
Background to 1978
By 1978, the system of Apartheid—the policy of institutionalised racial segregation and white minority rule—had existed for three decades. The National Party (NP) government maintained strict racial hierarchies, using legislation and a powerful security apparatus. However, the Soweto Uprising of 1976 signalled growing Black resistance, while economic demands for skilled labour and international condemnation intensified pressure for reform.
Apartheid: A system of institutionalised racial segregation and political and economic discrimination against non-white South Africans, enforced by the National Party from 1948 until the early 1990s.
Strengths of Apartheid by 1978
Despite rising unrest, Apartheid retained notable strengths:
State Security: The government commanded an extensive police and intelligence network, including the Bureau of State Security (BOSS), enabling rapid suppression of protests and detentions without trial.
Economic Backbone: South Africa’s mineral wealth, notably gold and diamonds, ensured significant revenue. The white minority controlled key industries, benefiting from cheap Black labour and a relatively advanced infrastructure.
Political Unity Among Whites: The NP enjoyed strong support from most Afrikaners and many English-speaking whites who feared loss of privilege.
Legal Control: Laws such as the Internal Security Act allowed the banning of organisations and censorship of the press, restricting opposition groups like the African National Congress (ANC).
These factors gave the regime a façade of durability and allowed it to claim stability to foreign investors.
Weaknesses of Apartheid by 1978
Yet these apparent strengths masked fundamental weaknesses:
Economic Dependence on Black Labour: Rapid industrialisation created demand for a skilled workforce, undermining the ideology of strict racial separation.
Urbanisation: Increasing Black migration to cities strained the Pass Laws and challenged the policy of keeping Black South Africans in rural Bantustans.
Map of South African Bantustans (homelands) showing their fragmented distribution relative to “white” South Africa. This spatial fragmentation illuminates both the regime’s control strategy and its practical weaknesses by 1978. Source
Rising Costs: Policing and enforcing segregation became costly, especially as international sanctions grew.
International Isolation: United Nations condemnation, cultural boycotts, and the withdrawal of foreign investment eroded South Africa’s global standing.
The government faced a dilemma: reform risked alienating white voters, but inflexibility threatened economic and political collapse.
Threats to Apartheid
Multiple internal and external threats converged in this period:
Black Resistance Movements: The ANC, Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), and underground cells continued to mobilise. The legacy of the Soweto Uprising inspired new youth activism.
Trade Union Activism: Independent unions, notably in the metal and mining sectors, staged strikes demanding better wages and political rights.
International Pressure: Economic sanctions, arms embargoes, and sporting boycotts isolated South Africa. Neighbouring states like Mozambique and Angola offered bases to liberation fighters.
Economic Challenges: High oil prices following the 1973 oil crisis increased dependence on foreign trade and vulnerable supply lines.
These factors collectively formed what PW Botha later described as a Total Onslaught.
The Rise of PW Botha
In 1978, Pieter Willem (PW) Botha became Prime Minister, succeeding John Vorster. A former Defence Minister, Botha believed that South Africa faced a coordinated global and domestic attack.
Total Onslaught: A term used by PW Botha to describe the combined internal and external threats to South Africa, including Black resistance, communist influence, and international condemnation.
Botha argued that only a comprehensive response—military, political, and social—could preserve white minority rule.
Total Strategy
Botha’s answer was Total Strategy, a policy of simultaneous military readiness and limited reform:
PW Botha inspects a guard of honour with General Constand Viljoen, then head of the Defence Force. The photograph illustrates the centrality of the military in Botha’s Total Strategy. The image dates from 1984, slightly later than 1978, but aptly depicts the security-first posture inaugurated in his premiership.
Military Expansion: Massive defence spending, strengthening of the South African Defence Force (SADF), and covert operations in neighbouring states to disrupt guerrilla bases.
Regional Influence: Support for proxy forces like UNITA in Angola and covert raids against ANC camps in Mozambique and Lesotho.
Constitutional Changes: Tentative inclusion of Coloured and Indian South Africans in political structures, notably the Tricameral Parliament (implemented in the 1980s), aimed at dividing opposition.
Economic Modernisation: Encouragement of foreign investment and limited relaxation of job reservation to secure skilled Black labour.
These measures sought to maintain white supremacy while adapting to new realities.
Consequences of Botha’s Reforms
Botha’s policies had significant consequences for different communities:
National Party and Whites: While hardliners appreciated the security measures, some conservative Afrikaners opposed even minimal reforms, leading to the breakaway Conservative Party.
Black South Africans: Limited reforms failed to address core grievances. Urban resistance grew, with community councils rejected as illegitimate.
Coloured and Indian Communities: The offer of partial political participation created divisions but did not satisfy demands for full equality.
International Relations: Militarisation deepened hostility with neighbouring states and maintained global condemnation, even as Botha attempted to present reforms as progress.
Key Points for OCR Study
By 1978 Apartheid maintained economic strength, security apparatus, and white political unity.
Weaknesses included economic dependence on Black labour and international isolation.
Total Onslaught captured the sense of internal and external threats.
Total Strategy represented Botha’s dual approach: military escalation and limited reform, with profound consequences for all racial groups in South Africa.
These developments illustrate the complex balance of resilience and vulnerability that defined the Apartheid state on the eve of the 1980s.
FAQ
The NP split between:
Verkramptes (hardliners), who opposed any dilution of white supremacy.
Verligtes (moderates), who supported gradual reform to preserve long-term white influence.
This tension led to the formation of the Conservative Party in 1982, weakening NP unity and complicating Botha’s attempts at controlled change.
International embargoes spurred a domestic arms build-up.
The state-owned Armscor became a major producer of weapons, from rifles to armoured vehicles.
South Africa developed covert partnerships with countries such as Israel for technology and components.
This growth ensured the regime could maintain military operations despite UN sanctions and bolstered Botha’s confidence in resisting external pressure.
South Africa’s involvement in neighbouring states heavily influenced Botha’s thinking.
The success of independence movements in Angola and Mozambique, both with Marxist leanings, convinced him that communism threatened South Africa directly.
Guerrilla activity by the ANC’s armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe, often operated from bases in these states, reinforcing fears of encirclement.
Cross-border raids and support for anti-communist factions such as UNITA in Angola became central to his military strategy.
The global oil shock quadrupled prices, exposing South Africa’s dependence on imported fuel.
The government responded by:
Expanding domestic coal-to-liquid fuel projects through the state company Sasol.
Increasing strategic petroleum reserves to guard against embargoes.
This heightened economic pressure while demonstrating the vulnerability of a resource-intensive industrial economy under sanctions.
Although the Tricameral Parliament granted political representation to Coloured and Indian South Africans, it excluded the Black African majority.
Key reasons for rejection included:
Retention of white veto power over key decisions.
Continued enforcement of Pass Laws and homeland policies.
Perception that reforms aimed to divide opposition rather than end racial domination.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two key economic weaknesses of the Apartheid system by 1978.
Mark Scheme
Award 1 mark for each correct weakness identified, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Acceptable answers include:
Dependence on cheap Black labour despite segregation ideology (1 mark)
Rising costs of policing and enforcing segregation (1 mark
Economic impact of international sanctions and boycotts (1 mark)
Need for skilled Black workers undermining job reservation policies (1 mark)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how PW Botha’s concept of “Total Strategy” sought to respond to the perceived “Total Onslaught” against Apartheid between 1978 and the early 1980s.
Mark Scheme
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Simple description of Total Strategy with limited detail.
May mention military build-up or reforms without clear link to the Total Onslaught.
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Explains at least two elements of Total Strategy (e.g. military expansion, regional interventions, constitutional reforms) and links them to the idea of countering threats.
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Clear, detailed explanation of multiple measures—such as defence spending, covert operations in neighbouring states, limited inclusion of Coloured and Indian South Africans in political structures, and economic modernisation.
Explicitly connects these actions to Botha’s belief in a coordinated internal and external “Total Onslaught” involving Black resistance, communism, and international pressure.
Demonstrates understanding of the intended goal to preserve white minority rule while adapting to changing circumstances.
