OCR Specification focus:
‘nature and development of opposition in this period: The United Democratic Front, ANC, Township Unrest, Church leaders; international relations and international opposition to Apartheid.’
The period 1978–1989 saw mounting internal resistance and intensified international opposition that together eroded the foundations of apartheid. Diverse movements, mass protests, and global condemnation reshaped the struggle for South African liberation.
Internal Opposition to Apartheid
The United Democratic Front (UDF)
Formed in 1983, the United Democratic Front became a broad coalition of over 600 civic, church, and student organisations.
Poster issued by the United Democratic Front (1983) announcing its unity message: “UDF Unites – Apartheid Divides.” The imagery of marchers beneath a bold UDF flag communicates mass, cross-community mobilisation. Source
Objective: To oppose the new constitutional reforms of P.W. Botha, particularly the 1983 Tricameral Parliament, which excluded Black South Africans.
Strategy: Non-racial, non-violent mass mobilisation. The UDF coordinated nationwide protests, boycotts, and strikes.
Impact: Provided an internal political alternative to apartheid and maintained grassroots links when the African National Congress (ANC) leadership remained largely in exile.
African National Congress (ANC)
The ANC was officially banned but remained central to resistance.
Underground Networks: ANC cells operated secretly within South Africa, coordinating with UDF activists.
Armed Struggle: Through its military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe, the ANC escalated sabotage campaigns against government installations.
International Liaison: Exiled leaders like Oliver Tambo built diplomatic ties, keeping the apartheid issue on the global stage.
Township Unrest
Townships became focal points of confrontation.
Causes: Economic hardship, unemployment, and forced relocations under apartheid laws.
Events: Frequent strikes, school boycotts, and violent clashes with police, especially after the 1984 rent boycotts and the 1985 State of Emergency.
Consequences: Daily unrest strained the regime’s security apparatus and demonstrated the depth of popular anger.
Role of Church Leaders
Religious organisations offered moral leadership and protection.
Desmond Tutu, Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, advocated non-violent protest and won the Nobel Peace Prize (1984).
The South African Council of Churches (SACC) provided practical support for activists, sheltering dissidents and publicising human rights abuses.
Government Response
Repression
The National Party under P.W. Botha adopted Total Strategy, combining reform with harsh security measures.
State of Emergency (1985): Empowered police to detain opponents without trial and censor media coverage.
Security Forces: Expanded powers for the police and military to suppress demonstrations and township revolts.
Limited Reforms
While cracking down, the regime offered partial reforms to co-opt moderate opposition.
Creation of the Tricameral Parliament (1983) for Coloured and Indian groups.
Relaxation of some pass laws.
These measures failed to appease Black South Africans and often intensified resistance.
International Opposition and Relations
Global Anti-Apartheid Movement
International activism increased dramatically.
Economic Sanctions: Countries imposed trade embargoes and restricted loans, including the US Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act (1986).
Cultural and Sporting Boycotts: South Africa was excluded from major sporting events and international cultural exchanges.
Grassroots Campaigns: Student groups and trade unions worldwide demanded divestment from companies operating in South Africa.
In Britain, the Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM) organised mass marches, consumer boycotts and disinvestment campaigns.
AAM march, London (2 November 1985), with 150,000 participants converging on Trafalgar Square to press for sanctions against South Africa. The leadership presence (including Oliver Tambo and Jesse Jackson) underscores the movement’s global reach. This is a clear example of international opposition shaping pressure on the regime. Source
Diplomatic Pressure
United Nations: Passed repeated resolutions condemning apartheid, urging member states to impose sanctions.
Commonwealth: Many African and Caribbean nations lobbied for tougher measures, influencing Britain and other Western governments despite initial reluctance.
Economic Impact
By the late 1980s:
Falling foreign investment and a weakened rand increased domestic economic instability.
International banks curtailed lending, pressuring the government to consider negotiations.
Key Individuals and Organisations
Nelson Mandela, though imprisoned, remained a symbol of resistance and a rallying figure for both domestic and international campaigns.
Desmond Tutu embodied moral opposition, repeatedly calling for non-violent protest and international sanctions.
Oliver Tambo ensured the ANC maintained diplomatic ties with sympathetic states and the United Nations.
Processes of Resistance
Boycotts: Consumer and rent boycotts crippled local administration and highlighted apartheid’s illegitimacy.
Strikes: Organised by unions such as the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), strikes disrupted the economy and linked labour demands to political change.
Civil Disobedience: Mass protests and defiance campaigns challenged segregated facilities and restrictive laws.
Significance of Combined Pressures
The synergy of internal resistance and international condemnation weakened apartheid’s economic and political base. Despite brutal repression, the growing unity of opposition forces—from township youth to global governments—forced the National Party to consider negotiations that eventually led to the dismantling of apartheid in the early 1990s.
FAQ
Student groups such as the South African National Students Congress and local youth committees acted as vital organisers of rallies and boycotts.
They spread UDF messages within schools and universities, mobilised peers for rent and consumer boycotts, and provided a constant flow of young activists when older leaders were detained.
Their involvement kept township protests vibrant and helped link educational grievances to broader anti-apartheid demands.
The government imposed strict censorship to limit reporting on unrest.
Newspapers faced bans on publishing photographs of protests or details of security operations.
Foreign journalists were expelled or tightly monitored.
State-run radio and television broadcast pro-government narratives, framing activists as criminals.
This censorship aimed to isolate activists from international sympathy but often drew further criticism abroad.
Mounting global pressure, combined with economic instability, made South Africa a financial risk.
Debt repayment worries grew as the rand weakened and sanctions bit.
Activist campaigns persuaded shareholders to divest from South African-linked institutions.
The 1985 debt crisis, when banks refused to roll over short-term loans, forced Pretoria to declare a partial debt standstill, deepening its economic isolation.
The ANC relied on covert communication and external bases.
Couriers and encrypted letters carried messages between exiled leaders and underground cells.
Radio broadcasts such as “Radio Freedom” transmitted ANC statements and instructions.
Neighbouring countries like Mozambique and Zambia provided safe havens for training and planning.
These links allowed coordination of sabotage campaigns and political strategy.
Church organisations offered practical and political support beyond public sermons.
They provided meeting spaces for banned organisations and legal assistance for detainees.
International church networks channelled funds and publicised abuses, amplifying pressure abroad.
Ecumenical bodies such as the World Council of Churches funded humanitarian relief for families affected by arrests and violence.
This blend of advocacy and material aid made churches a cornerstone of resistance infrastructure.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name one leader of the United Democratic Front (UDF) and state one key aim of the organisation.
Mark Scheme
1 mark for correctly identifying a UDF leader such as Allan Boesak, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, or Albertina Sisulu.
1 mark for a correct aim, e.g. opposing the 1983 Tricameral Parliament, uniting civic and church groups against apartheid, or promoting non-racial democracy.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two ways in which international opposition increased pressure on the South African government between 1978 and 1989.
Mark Scheme
Up to 3 marks for each well-explained way.
Award 1 mark for identifying a valid form of international opposition (e.g. economic sanctions, sporting boycotts, diplomatic pressure via the UN, Anti-Apartheid Movement campaigns).
Award 1 mark for describing how it was implemented (e.g. US Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act 1986, Commonwealth calls for sanctions, exclusion from international sport).
Award 1 mark for explaining the impact on South Africa (e.g. weakened the rand, reduced foreign investment, isolated the government diplomatically, increased domestic economic instability).
