The second Viking age witnessed dramatic Scandinavian activity across the British Isles. Leadership, shifting strategies, and the Danegeld system shaped the course of raids and interactions.

The Second Viking Age

Background

The so-called second Viking age refers to the renewed surge of raids and military activity in England and Scotland from the late 10th century into the early 11th century. This period saw not only sporadic raiding but also organised campaigns by powerful leaders. Unlike the earlier raiding phase beginning in the late eighth century, this later period reflected more sophisticated leadership, larger fleets, and the increasing involvement of Scandinavian monarchs themselves.

Distinctive Features

• Greater organisation compared to early Viking raids.

• Royal leadership, often with kings personally directing expeditions.

• The introduction and frequent use of Danegeld (tribute payments) as a political and economic tool.

• Stronger military responses from Anglo-Saxon kings, notably Æthelred II (“the Unready”) and later Cnut the Great.

Danegeld: A Defining Feature

Definition and Function

The Danegeld was not a single isolated payment but became a recurring feature of Anglo-Saxon policy when under Viking pressure. While intended to buy security, in practice it often encouraged further demands, since it revealed the wealth of England and the willingness of rulers to negotiate.

Impact

• Economic strain on Anglo-Saxon populations, as heavy taxation was imposed to fund payments.

• Strategic consequences, since payments could redirect raiders to other regions temporarily.

• Cultural implications, as Anglo-Saxon chroniclers condemned the policy as cowardly and destabilising.

Key Figures of Viking Leadership

Sweyn Forkbeard

Sweyn Forkbeard, king of Denmark, led multiple large-scale invasions of England in the 990s and early 1000s. His forces extracted enormous Danegeld payments and, in 1013, briefly conquered England outright. His leadership exemplified the shift from sporadic raiding to royally led conquest campaigns.

Cnut the Great

Cnut, son of Sweyn, consolidated Viking control over England after 1016.

Modern, simplified map showing the extent of Cnut’s dominions around the North Sea. It situates England within a wider Anglo-Scandinavian polity, clarifying the strategic maritime axis of his rule. Labelling includes Denmark, England and Norway as core components. Source

His reign symbolised the culmination of Viking expansion, combining military conquest with shrewd governance. Unlike mere raiding leaders, Cnut operated as a legitimate monarch over a North Sea empire, ruling Denmark, England, Norway, and parts of Sweden.

Olaf Tryggvason and Olaf Haraldsson

Norwegian leaders also featured prominently in this period. Olaf Tryggvason’s involvement in England during the 990s culminated in his participation at the Battle of Maldon, while Olaf Haraldsson later raided England before becoming St Olaf of Norway. Both demonstrate the interconnectedness of Viking leadership across Scandinavia.

Leadership in Raids on England

Organisation of Raids

Viking leaders coordinated large fleets, sometimes numbering hundreds of ships, which allowed for sustained campaigns rather than hit-and-run attacks.

Oseberg ship, a well-preserved longship illustrating clinker-built construction, shallow draft and oar/sail propulsion—key to Viking operational reach. Though the burial ship predates c. 1000, it accurately represents the vessel type employed in later raids. Extra decorative detail on this specimen exceeds syllabus needs but clarifies structural features. Source

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records formidable armies that combined seafaring skill with aggressive land operations.

Notable Campaigns

• Battle of Maldon (991): Led by Olaf Tryggvason, this raid defeated Anglo-Saxon forces under Byrhtnoth. The aftermath saw the first major Danegeld payment.

Silver penny of Æthelred II (Long Cross/“hand” series variants), struck c. late 10th–early 11th century. Such pennies formed the fiscal backbone of Danegeld payments to Viking leaders. The image shows the ruler’s bust and the clear Latin legend, typical of late Anglo-Saxon coinage. Source

• Raids of 1006–1012: A period of sustained devastation across southern England, with further Danegeld payments exacted.

• Sweyn Forkbeard’s conquest (1013): The occupation of England, forcing Æthelred II into exile.

• Cnut’s consolidation (1016): Cnut’s victory at the Battle of Assandun established him as ruler of England.

Raids on Scotland

Scope and Nature

While less well documented than English raids, Scotland also experienced Viking incursions. Scandinavian leaders targeted coastal regions, particularly in the north and west, including the Hebrides and Orkney. The impact of these raids contributed to the emergence of Scottish unity, as local rulers sought collective resistance against external threats.

Norse-Gaelic Leadership

Viking leaders in Scotland often merged with local Gaelic elites, producing hybrid rulers such as the Earls of Orkney. These figures wielded power through both raiding activity and integration into regional politics.

Anglo-Saxon Leadership in Response

Æthelred II (“the Unready”)

Æthelred’s reign was marked by repeated Viking attacks and his policy of paying Danegeld. His leadership was often criticised as indecisive, and his reliance on tribute is seen as a factor in Viking persistence.

Edmund Ironside

In contrast, Edmund Ironside, son of Æthelred, led vigorous resistance against Cnut in 1016. Though ultimately unsuccessful, his leadership demonstrated the determination of Anglo-Saxon resistance in the face of overwhelming Viking pressure.

Consequences of Viking Leadership in Raids

• The second Viking age transformed from sporadic raids to dynastic conquest, reshaping the political map of England.

• The reliance on Danegeld highlighted the tension between immediate survival and long-term weakness.

• Key Viking leaders like Sweyn Forkbeard and Cnut the Great demonstrated the capacity of Viking kings to transition from raiders to rulers.

• Raids on Scotland underscored the wider geographical scope of Viking influence and contributed to political centralisation in Scotland.