OCR Specification focus:
‘Raids on England and Scotland; motives for raids; Alfred’s and Athelstan’s response to raids; conquest; raiding and trading in Ireland, Wales, the Isle of Man, the Carolingian Empire (including Normandy).’
The Viking raids of the late eighth and ninth centuries reshaped European politics, economies, and cultures. Their strategies combined raiding, conquest, and trading, provoking resistance and adaptation.
Motives for Raids
Viking raids were driven by a combination of economic, political, and social factors:
Economic motives
• Acquisition of portable wealth, particularly silver, gold, and slaves.
• Limited agricultural resources in Scandinavia encouraged outward expansion.
• Access to established trade networks in Europe and the British Isles.Political motives
• Opportunities for ambitious chieftains to gain prestige and reward followers.
• Weakness and disunity of Anglo-Saxon and Scottish kingdoms made them vulnerable.
• The Carolingian Empire’s internal instability created openings for Viking incursions.Social motives
• Raiding as a cultural marker of identity and proof of martial ability.
• Younger sons with limited inheritance sought fortune abroad.
• The Viking warrior ethos emphasised honour gained through successful warfare.
Danegeld: A tribute paid by Anglo-Saxon rulers to Viking raiders in exchange for peace or withdrawal.
Raids on England and Scotland
The most famous early raid was the attack on Lindisfarne in 793, symbolising a new era of violent disruption. By the ninth century, Viking forces:
Targeted monasteries and coastal settlements, exploiting their wealth and poor defences.
Established seasonal raiding bases, enabling sustained campaigns.
Launched incursions into Scotland, undermining Pictish and Northumbrian authority.
Pressured rulers to pay Danegeld, embedding raids into the political fabric of England.
Conquest and Settlement
Raiding often escalated into conquest and settlement:
In the 860s, the so-called “Great Heathen Army” landed in England, marking a shift from opportunistic raiding to campaigns of territorial control.
Map showing the principal movements of the Great Heathen Army across Anglo-Saxon England between 865 and 878. The routes illustrate how raiding escalated into sustained campaigning against Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex. Minor route variations reflect differing chronicle interpretations (extra detail beyond the OCR scope). Source
They seized key cities such as York, which became a centre of Viking administration and culture.
Conquest blurred with settlement, as warriors established farms and integrated with local populations.
Conquest: The act of forcibly acquiring territory through military action and imposing control over it.
Alfred’s Response to Raids
King Alfred of Wessex (871–899) played a decisive role in resisting Viking expansion:
Reorganised the military system, creating fortified towns (burhs) and a more mobile army.
Map of burhs named in the 10th-century Burghal Hidage, showing the distribution of Alfredian/Edwardian fortifications. These sites formed a defensive lattice that blunted Viking incursions and secured lines of communication. Some burhs shown extend into the 10th century (useful context that slightly exceeds the subsubtopic’s timeframe). Source
Constructed a naval force to counter Viking fleets at sea.
Negotiated treaties, most famously the Treaty of Wedmore (878), which divided England into Anglo-Saxon and Viking-controlled areas.
His reforms preserved Wessex as an independent kingdom and laid foundations for future English unity.
Athelstan’s Response to Raids
Athelstan (924–939), Alfred’s grandson, extended and strengthened royal power:
Defeated Viking and allied forces at the Battle of Brunanburh (937), a pivotal victory.
Asserted overlordship across much of Britain, consolidating authority.
Map of England under Æthelstan, indicating territorial reach and influence in the 930s. It illustrates how royal power expanded from defensive survival to assertive control over Viking and regional rivals. Some peripheral labels relate to broader 10th-century context (additional but not required by the OCR focus). Source
Expanded diplomacy and trade with continental powers, integrating England into broader European networks.
His reign marked a shift from defensive resistance to active dominance over Viking challengers.
Raiding and Trading Networks
Viking strategy was not confined to violence; trade and cultural exchange developed alongside raiding:
Ireland and Wales: Viking presence centred on coastal towns like Dublin, which became a major hub for the slave trade and silver circulation.
Isle of Man: Served as a strategic base between Britain and Ireland.
Carolingian Empire: Raids on Normandy and Brittany destabilised Frankish authority, prompting rulers to grant land (e.g., Normandy in 911) to Viking leaders in exchange for peace.
Integration of raiding and trading: Vikings alternated between threats of force and legitimate commercial activity, embedding themselves in European economies.
Carolingian Empire: The Frankish empire founded by Charlemagne, encompassing much of Western and Central Europe in the eighth and ninth centuries.
Strategy and Adaptation
The effectiveness of Viking warfare stemmed from their adaptability:
Use of longships allowed rapid movement across seas and rivers, striking deep inland.
Combined tactics of raiding, trading, and settling created a flexible model of expansion.
Ability to exploit political weakness in targeted regions enhanced their success.
As opposition hardened, Vikings evolved from hit-and-run raiders to rulers and settlers.
Their strategies forced rulers like Alfred and Athelstan to develop new defensive systems, strengthening state structures in England and beyond. In this way, Viking conflict and strategy catalysed lasting political transformation in Northern Europe.
FAQ
Viking longships allowed rapid coastal and river movement, giving raiders surprise and flexibility. Their shallow draught meant they could sail inland rivers, attacking settlements far from the coast.
The ships were light enough to be carried overland between waterways, enabling access to multiple targets. Speed and manoeuvrability made them difficult for slower Anglo-Saxon fleets to intercept.
The battle marked Athelstan’s decisive victory against a coalition of Norse, Scottish, and Strathclyde forces. It demonstrated English capacity not only to resist raids but also to assert dominance.
Brunanburh secured Athelstan’s reputation as the first “king of all the English,” showing a transition from defensive survival to political consolidation.
Danegeld payments encouraged Vikings to target wealthy Anglo-Saxon kingdoms repeatedly, as tribute proved profitable with minimal risk.
It institutionalised raiding by turning it into a recurring practice, where leaders returned expecting payment.
• This undermined Anglo-Saxon authority, as paying tribute projected weakness.
• It also funded larger Viking forces, strengthening future campaigns.
Raiding often created openings for settlement and commerce. After violent attacks, Vikings established trading posts like Dublin, which developed into a commercial hub.
Goods exchanged included slaves, silver, textiles, and weaponry. This dual role of violence and trade made Viking presence more entrenched and difficult to eradicate.
Burhs provided fortified refuges for local populations and acted as secure bases for Anglo-Saxon troops. Their positioning ensured no area was far from protection.
This network forced Vikings to abandon quick raids, as fortified towns resisted capture. It shifted the balance from Viking mobility to Anglo-Saxon defensive depth, reducing the effectiveness of raids and enabling counter-attacks.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two reasons why Vikings raided England in the ninth century.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correct reason identified, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Possible answers include:
• Economic gain (silver, gold, slaves, resources).
• Limited agricultural resources in Scandinavia.
• Political ambition and prestige for leaders.
• Exploiting weakness and disunity among Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
• Social expectations and warrior ethos of Viking society.
Question 2 (5 marks):
Explain how Alfred of Wessex responded to Viking raids during his reign.
Mark scheme:
Award 1–2 marks for simple statements of fact.
Award 3–4 marks for developed explanation of Alfred’s measures with some supporting detail.
Award 5 marks for a well-developed answer that explains and links multiple responses clearly.
Indicative content:
• Reorganisation of the military system, including the creation of burhs (fortified towns).
• Development of a more mobile army to respond quickly to Viking attacks.
• Establishment of a naval force to counter Viking fleets.
• Treaty-making, notably the Treaty of Wedmore (878), which defined Anglo-Saxon and Viking areas of control.
• Emphasis on preserving Wessex and laying the foundations for English unity.
Credit any other valid knowledge that demonstrates understanding of Alfred’s responses.
