OCR Specification focus:
‘Motives; the impact on Anglo-Saxon politics, the economy, culture and society (including religious belief).’
Introduction
The Viking raids on England in the late eighth and ninth centuries reshaped northern Europe, with economic ambition, political opportunism, and cultural encounters driving their violent incursions.
Background to Viking Raids
The first major raid on Lindisfarne in 793 shocked contemporaries and set the tone for subsequent incursions. England’s wealth, fragmented political structure, and vulnerable coastlines made it a prime target. The raiders’ swift longships and expertise in seafaring enabled them to strike quickly and escape before defences could rally.
Ruined Lindisfarne Priory on Holy Island, later Norman in date but on the historic monastic site attacked in 793. It illustrates why coastal monasteries presented rich, poorly defended targets. Note that the surviving architecture is 12th-century (extra detail beyond the syllabus). Source
Raid: A sudden armed attack, often for plunder, distinguished from conquest by its speed, opportunism, and limited aim of extracting wealth.
The raids were not random acts of savagery but were often planned, timed, and motivated by a blend of economic, political, and social factors.
Economic Motives
The search for wealth was central to Viking raiding. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were comparatively rich, and this prosperity drew Scandinavian warriors across the North Sea.
Monasteries as targets: Monasteries contained gold, silver, and sacred relics. Their isolation and limited defences made them vulnerable. Lindisfarne, Jarrow, and Iona became infamous examples.
Portable wealth: Silver, coins, jewellery, and slaves were highly prized. These could be carried back or traded within the Viking world.
Land hunger: Scandinavian land was limited, especially in Norway with its mountainous terrain. Raiding was partly driven by a search for fertile land, though large-scale settlement developed later.
Trade connections: Raiding and trading were interconnected. Loot could be sold, and raids sometimes opened new routes into the Carolingian Empire, Ireland, and Russia.
Danegeld: A tribute paid by Anglo-Saxons to Viking raiders, initially to stop attacks, but later institutionalised as a tax to manage ongoing Viking threats.
The circulation of silver and foreign goods also transformed Scandinavian economies, marking raids as an economic engine as well as destructive force.
The Watlington Hoard (coins of Alfred and Ceolwulf II, silver ingots and jewellery) was probably deposited in the late 870s amid campaigning against the Great Heathen Army. It illustrates how bullion and coin formed the material objective of raids and payments. The image includes jewellery as well as coins/ingots (extra detail beyond the minimum syllabus requirement). Source
Political Motives
Viking raids coincided with major political shifts both in Scandinavia and in England. The political context provided incentives and opportunities.
Status and kingship: In Scandinavia, leaders could win support and prestige by rewarding followers with plunder. Successful raiding increased a chieftain’s authority.
Anglo-Saxon disunity: England’s multiple kingdoms (Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia) made coordinated defence difficult, creating openings for raiders.
Exploiting crises: Raids often intensified during periods of internal Anglo-Saxon instability. For example, rivalries within Northumbria made it especially vulnerable.
Expansionist ambitions: Beyond opportunistic raids, some leaders envisioned conquest, particularly in the ninth century, when the Great Heathen Army sought permanent control.
The arrival of the Great Heathen Army in 865 marked a shift from episodic raiding to overwintering campaigns and nascent conquest.
A clear map showing the routes and winter bases of the Great Heathen Army between 865 and 878. It helps explain how raiding escalated into sustained campaigning that pressured Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The legend distinguishes routes by year, keeping the visual uncluttered. Source
Political motives ensured that raids were not just about immediate gain but also part of broader struggles for power and influence across northern Europe.
Social and Cultural Motives
The Viking world was bound by traditions of warrior culture, exploration, and reputation. Raiding fulfilled these social imperatives.
Warrior ethos: Honour and status were achieved through combat and the acquisition of wealth. Successful raids elevated the reputation of warriors and their kin.
Younger sons and landlessness: Inheritance customs often left younger sons landless. Raiding offered a means of survival and prosperity.
Adventure and exploration: Raiding reflected the wider Scandinavian drive to explore, settle, and expand horizons. The same spirit drove voyages to Ireland, Iceland, and beyond.
Religious outlook: Pagan belief systems valorised warriors who died in battle, promising them entry into Valhalla. This reinforced a culture where risk and aggression were celebrated.
Valhalla: In Norse mythology, the hall of the slain, where warriors who died in battle were received by Odin to feast until Ragnarök.
These cultural and social frameworks help explain why raiding was not only tolerated but celebrated within Viking communities.
Impact on Anglo-Saxon England
The raids had profound effects on Anglo-Saxon politics, economy, culture, and religious life.
Political Impact
Kings were forced to develop new strategies of defence, including fortified burhs under Alfred the Great.
Raids contributed to the unification of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, as common defence required cooperation.
Power shifted from vulnerable kingdoms such as Northumbria to stronger states like Wessex.
Economic Impact
Short-term devastation included loss of wealth and agricultural disruption.
Long-term effects included the integration of Viking silver into Anglo-Saxon currency systems.
Raiding spurred innovations in taxation, such as Danegeld, laying the foundations for more centralised financial systems.
Cultural Impact
The destruction of monasteries was also a cultural assault, eroding centres of learning and manuscript production.
Yet the presence of Viking words, art styles, and material culture indicates cultural exchange as well as destruction.
The blending of Viking and Anglo-Saxon culture, particularly in the Danelaw later, reshaped English identity.
Religious Impact
Christian communities interpreted raids as divine punishment, inspiring reform and renewed piety.
Monasteries rebuilt after destruction often became stronger, supported by royal patronage.
The confrontation with pagan Vikings reinforced Christian identity and strengthened the ideological link between kingship and the Church.
In sum, the causes and motives of Viking raids on England were deeply interconnected. Economic greed, political ambition, and cultural imperatives drove the raids, while the consequences reverberated across Anglo-Saxon society in profound ways.
FAQ
Viking longships allowed raiders to travel not only across the sea but also inland via rivers such as the Thames and Humber.
These locations were chosen because:
Monasteries and settlements there were rich yet poorly defended.
Access to water meant fast escape routes.
Trade centres at ports and river mouths provided additional goods and captives.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle often described the raids as divine punishment, emphasising horror and devastation.
This portrayal reflected the perspective of monks, who saw their communities attacked. The language was moral and religious, presenting raids as tests of faith rather than purely military events.
While many raids were violent, some also involved negotiation. Kings and communities sometimes paid tribute to secure peace.
This practice, later formalised as Danegeld, shows that raiders could be pragmatic, treating violence and negotiation as interchangeable tools depending on resistance and opportunity.
Raids were often conducted in the summer months. Better weather and calmer seas allowed safer sailing and faster movements.
Agricultural cycles in Scandinavia also mattered: young men free from farming obligations could be mobilised for raiding expeditions.
Raids destabilised households by capturing men or forcing them into military defence, which could temporarily increase women’s responsibilities.
Women also became vulnerable as captives, taken as slaves or concubines. At the same time, noble Anglo-Saxon women sometimes played roles in negotiating ransoms or supporting monastic rebuilding efforts.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two economic motives that encouraged Viking raids on England in the late eighth and ninth centuries.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correct economic motive identified (maximum 2).
Acceptable answers include:
Wealth from monasteries (gold, silver, relics).
Acquisition of portable wealth (coins, jewellery, slaves).
Land hunger due to limited farmland in Scandinavia.
Access to trade and markets.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Viking raids affected Anglo-Saxon politics and society in the late eighth and ninth centuries.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Simple or general statements with limited detail, e.g. “The raids caused problems for Anglo-Saxon kings.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation with relevant supporting detail, e.g. “The raids weakened some kingdoms such as Northumbria, and kings had to respond with stronger defences like burhs.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Developed explanation with range and depth, explicitly linking raids to political and social change, e.g. “The raids contributed to political unification, as kingdoms were forced to cooperate in defence, and they also disrupted society through destruction of monasteries, loss of wealth, and enslavement, leading to significant upheaval in Anglo-Saxon life.”
