OCR Specification focus:
‘the parliament of 1377, financial problems and the Poll Tax of 1377; the parliament of 1378 and Wycliffe; the end of the Councils.’
Richard II’s early reign saw England in political and financial difficulty. Parliaments, new taxation, and religious controversies shaped his minority rule and strained royal authority.
The Parliament of 1377
The parliament of 1377 was the first of Richard II’s reign. Convened shortly after Edward III’s death, it reflected the heavy burden of ongoing war with France.
Sixteenth-century depiction of a medieval English Parliament, with the king enthroned and estates arranged by order and function. Though it shows Edward I and not 1377–1378 specifically, it illustrates the ceremony and political theatre relevant to Richard II’s early Parliaments. Source
Context: The war in France required sustained funding, yet England’s finances were in poor health after years of costly campaigning.
Taxation: Parliament granted subsidies, but the sums were insufficient to meet demands of the war effort.
Political atmosphere: Councillors ruling in Richard’s minority faced suspicion, with concerns about corruption and mismanagement of funds.
Financial Problems
England in the late 1370s faced severe financial strain.
Military campaigns in France and the maintenance of garrisons were extremely costly.
Trade disruption, particularly in wool, reduced customs revenues.
The Black Death and subsequent outbreaks weakened the tax base, leaving fewer people to shoulder the burden of royal demands.
Poll Tax: A fixed tax levied on each adult in the realm, regardless of income or wealth.
The Poll Tax of 1377 was a significant departure from traditional forms of taxation, such as subsidies based on property. Each adult was required to pay a flat rate of four pence.
A 1377 poll-tax return (Whitland, Carmarthenshire), showing names and assessments recorded on parchment. Although this example relates to a clerical subsidy, it demonstrates how poll taxes were administered and audited in the same year as the lay tax. Source
Implications of the Poll Tax
It was widely unpopular because it ignored social and economic differences.
It revealed the desperation of the Crown to secure revenue.
It set a precedent for further poll taxes (notably in 1379 and 1381) that would fuel deep social unrest.
The Parliament of 1378 and Wycliffe
The parliament of 1378 was notable not only for continued financial pressures but also for the emergence of John Wycliffe as a political and religious figure.
Portrait of John Wycliffe, the Oxford theologian whose critiques of church wealth and authority fed into parliamentary debate in 1378. This is an 1828 painting in Balliol College Hall, not a contemporary likeness, but it remains a widely used visual reference in academic contexts. Source
John Wycliffe’s Role
Wycliffe, a theologian from Oxford, attracted attention for his criticisms of the wealth and power of the Church.
He argued that the Church should be stripped of temporal possessions and return to apostolic poverty.
His views gained traction among those frustrated by the financial demands of both Crown and Church.
John Wycliffe: An English theologian and reformer (c.1330–1384), known as the “Morning Star of the Reformation,” who challenged the authority and wealth of the medieval Church.
Wycliffe in Politics
In 1378, Wycliffe’s ideas were taken up by certain political factions seeking to challenge clerical privilege.
He enjoyed protection from powerful nobles, including John of Gaunt, though this association made him controversial.
Parliament debated issues of ecclesiastical wealth and papal taxation, linking financial and religious grievances.
Significance of Wycliffe’s Involvement
His presence in parliamentary discussions reflected wider dissatisfaction with Church influence in politics.
He laid intellectual foundations for Lollardy, a religious reform movement that would grow in importance during the reigns of Richard II and Henry IV.
The End of the Councils
Richard II’s minority was governed by a series of councils composed of senior nobles and clerics.
Their purpose was to manage the kingdom until Richard came of age.
However, financial failure and unpopular taxation undermined their authority.
Decline of Confidence
The Poll Tax of 1377 created resentment and demonstrated the councils’ inability to govern effectively.
Parliament became increasingly frustrated with perceived mismanagement and corruption.
Public dissatisfaction was aggravated by continued failures in the French war effort.
Transition in Rule
By 1380, the councils’ role diminished as Richard began to exercise personal authority.
The end of the councils marked a shift towards Richard’s personal rule, though this brought new tensions.
The legacy of financial mismanagement and unpopular policies would cast a long shadow over Richard’s early reign.
Key Themes and Historical Importance
Royal finance: The difficulty of raising revenue in late 14th-century England, culminating in reliance on regressive taxes like the poll tax.
Parliament’s role: An arena for debate not only about taxation but also about broader issues of governance and religion.
Religious dissent: The entry of Wycliffe into politics signalled an early challenge to the medieval Church’s power and wealth.
End of minority government: The collapse of council rule set the stage for Richard II’s controversial personal monarchy.
Layered Effects
The events of 1377–1378 were not isolated. They contributed to broader developments:
Continuing dissatisfaction with taxation would feed into the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381.
Wycliffe’s ideas, though condemned, survived and inspired later reformers.
The tensions between king, parliament, and people during Richard’s minority foreshadowed the struggles of his personal rule.
FAQ
Unlike subsidies, which were based on movable property or land ownership, the Poll Tax demanded the same payment from every adult regardless of wealth.
This removed proportionality from taxation and struck the poorest hardest, creating widespread resentment. It also reflected the Crown’s desperation for a reliable revenue stream after repeated failures in collecting sufficient funds through traditional methods.
The 1377 tax alone did not cause rebellion, but it established a dangerous precedent.
Its unpopularity encouraged resistance to the later Poll Taxes of 1379 and 1381.
By the third tax, resentment had built up, leading to violent protest.
Thus, the 1377 tax can be seen as the spark that lit a longer fuse of anger and distrust.
John of Gaunt became a protector of Wycliffe, shielding him from condemnation by clerical authorities.
This patronage tied Wycliffe’s religious ideas to Gaunt’s political agenda, especially his opposition to the power and wealth of the clergy.
However, Gaunt’s unpopularity among Londoners also tainted Wycliffe’s reputation, turning what might have been a purely religious debate into a deeply political controversy.
The Councils argued that a universal tax was the fairest and most efficient way to raise funds quickly for war against France.
They stressed that traditional methods were failing due to a shrinking tax base after the Black Death.
By spreading the burden equally, they claimed it would be less onerous than repeated subsidies on property.
In practice, these justifications failed to convince and instead fuelled perceptions of unfairness.
The wider context was the Great Schism in the papacy, beginning in 1378, which cast doubt on the legitimacy of papal authority.
Parliament saw this as an opportunity to challenge Rome’s financial demands, such as annates and benefices, and to reduce the outflow of money abroad.
Wycliffe’s arguments that the Church should surrender its temporal wealth dovetailed with this moment, giving Parliament a strong case to demand reforms to ecclesiastical privilege.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year was the first Poll Tax introduced during the minority of Richard II, and what was the flat rate each adult had to pay?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying the correct year: 1377.
1 mark for identifying the correct flat rate: four pence.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why John Wycliffe’s involvement in the Parliament of 1378 was politically significant.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each reason explained.
Award marks for:
Criticism of the Church’s wealth and power (1 mark).
Association with John of Gaunt, giving him political prominence (1 mark).
His ideas offered a platform for challenging clerical privilege in Parliament (1 mark).
Explanation of wider importance, e.g., linking his arguments to emerging Lollardy or reflecting broader dissatisfaction with papal taxation (up to 3 marks total per reason if developed).
Maximum 6 marks: 3 marks per well-explained reason, with clear link to political significance.
