OCR Specification focus:
‘The role and development of: the household, exchequer, chancery, justiciar and law courts; the role and power of the Crown, the nobility, the Church and administrative officials in central government.’
The organisation of England’s central government between 1066 and 1216 revolved around evolving institutions and the roles of powerful figures, balancing royal authority with the influence of church and nobility.
The Royal Household
The royal household was both a domestic and political body, forming the personal retinue of the monarch. It was initially small and intimate, but grew into an essential administrative unit.
It provided food, lodging, and security for the king.
It supported decision-making and facilitated the royal presence across the kingdom.
Officials of the household, such as stewards and chamberlains, held growing authority in fiscal and political matters.
Royal Household: The king’s immediate circle of servants and officials responsible for domestic, ceremonial, and increasingly administrative functions.
Over time, the household served as a nursery for royal government, producing men who would later run key institutions such as the Exchequer or the chancery.
The Exchequer
The Exchequer was the central financial department of the realm, responsible for collecting and auditing royal revenues. Emerging formally under Henry I, it became one of the most important organs of government.
It supervised sheriffs, who collected taxes and rents.
Accounts were audited on the chequered table, where counters were used to calculate revenues.
Pipe rolls from the 12th century provide evidence of the Exchequer’s efficiency.
A medieval Pipe Roll (1194) recording audited royal revenues and debts in Latin. Rolls like this underpinned the Exchequer’s centralised financial oversight and enabled systematic accountability. The image presents a clean view of the rolled parchment and script without clutter. Source
Exchequer: The royal financial office responsible for receiving, recording, and auditing income from land, taxation, and feudal dues.
Its creation symbolised the professionalisation of government, reducing reliance on arbitrary royal decision-making.
The Chancery
The chancery was the department responsible for producing and authenticating royal documents. It grew from the king’s chapel, staffed by clerics, into a key administrative body.
It issued writs, charters, and letters patent under the royal seal.
The Great Seal of King John (1215) attached to a charter, exemplifying how the chancery authenticated royal documents. Seals converted royal intention into enforceable orders across the realm. The heraldic and iconographic detail visible here exceeds the syllabus requirements but helps students see what official authentication looked like. Source
It formalised royal orders, making governance more consistent and less dependent on oral command.
Clerks of the chancery were vital in maintaining continuity between reigns.
The chancery demonstrated the link between literacy, the Church, and royal power, as most early clerks were trained in ecclesiastical schools.
The Justiciar
The justiciar was effectively the king’s chief minister, particularly important during the monarch’s absence. This role crystallised under Henry I and Henry II.
The justiciar presided over the Curia Regis (royal court) in the king’s absence.
He ensured the kingdom’s administration continued smoothly, supervising officials and finances.
Justiciars such as Ranulf Flambard and Hubert Walter wielded immense influence, shaping legal and financial reforms.
Justiciar: The king’s chief administrator, acting as regent in the monarch’s absence and overseeing justice, finance, and governance.
This office underpinned the continuity of governance, even when kings were abroad in Normandy or on crusade.
Law Courts
The development of royal law courts centralised justice under the Crown.
Local justice, once rooted in Anglo-Saxon customary law, was gradually absorbed into the king’s courts.
The Curia Regis evolved into more specialised courts, including the Court of Common Pleas and the King’s Bench.
The king’s judges travelled the realm in eyres, spreading uniform justice.
This centralisation enhanced the Crown’s authority, reducing baronial autonomy in legal matters.
The Crown’s Authority
The Crown remained the linchpin of central government. Its power was expressed through:
Feudal lordship, ensuring military service and loyalty from barons.
Control over finance and justice.
The ability to summon counsel, which laid foundations for later parliaments.
Yet, the strength of the Crown varied. Strong kings like Henry II imposed authority effectively, while weaker rulers like Stephen or John faced rebellion.
The Nobility
The nobility were crucial to the operation of central government.
They staffed leading offices, including justiciar and household posts.
They provided military and financial resources through feudal obligations.
Yet, their ambition could destabilise government, as seen in baronial rebellions.
Balancing noble cooperation and curbing over-mighty subjects was a constant royal challenge.
The Church
The Church was both a partner and a rival to the Crown.
Bishops and abbots served as royal advisers and chancery clerks.
The Church provided literacy and education, essential for administration.
Disputes arose over investiture and ecclesiastical independence, most famously with Thomas Becket.
Investiture Controversy: A conflict over whether kings or the pope had the authority to appoint bishops and other church officials.
The Church’s dual loyalty to Rome and the Crown made it a complex force in governance.
Administrative Officials
Beneath the great offices, a host of administrative officials ensured the machinery of government functioned.
Sheriffs collected revenues in the shires and enforced royal writs.
Clerks in chancery and exchequer kept meticulous records.
Household officials expanded the reach of royal service.
These figures, though less celebrated, were vital in turning royal will into effective governance.
FAQ
Earlier Anglo-Saxon and Norman kings relied heavily on ad hoc revenue collection and personal household treasuries.
The Exchequer introduced under Henry I provided a permanent financial department. Its innovations included:
Audited accounts recorded on pipe rolls.
Regularised collection of taxes and feudal dues.
Use of tally sticks to reduce fraud.
This marked a significant shift towards bureaucratic accountability.
The chancery’s officials were primarily clerics because literacy and Latin training were concentrated in monasteries and cathedrals.
This connection gave the king access to highly skilled administrators. It also meant that chancery documents carried ecclesiastical authority, strengthening their credibility.
However, it also created tensions when papal and royal interests diverged, as clerics sometimes had competing loyalties.
A justiciar needed:
Legal knowledge to preside over courts.
Administrative ability to supervise finance and governance.
Loyalty to the Crown to ensure stability during royal absences.
Successful justiciars also required political tact, as they had to manage nobles, clergy, and sheriffs while projecting royal authority in the king’s name.
Previously, justice was dispensed through local courts controlled by lords and bishops.
Royal courts expanded jurisdiction, especially over serious crimes and disputes involving land. Travelling justices brought consistent rulings to shires, undermining feudal independence.
This reduced the scope for nobles to use private courts for political leverage, shifting authority to the king.
The nobility were indispensable to day-to-day governance.
They filled leading roles such as justiciar or household officials.
Many served as military leaders, enforcing royal orders.
They provided advice in the king’s council, shaping policy.
Thus, even loyal nobles exerted influence by directing administrative practice and advising monarchs, not solely through opposition.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two central institutions of government that developed under Henry I.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying the Exchequer.
1 mark for correctly identifying the chancery.
(Any two from: household, Exchequer, chancery, justiciar, law courts.)
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how the role of the justiciar contributed to the stability of royal government between 1066 and 1216.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying the justiciar as the king’s chief administrator or regent.
1 mark for explaining that the justiciar presided over the Curia Regis in the king’s absence.
1 mark for noting that the justiciar supervised finances and justice, ensuring continuity of government.
1 mark for explaining that the justiciar maintained royal authority when monarchs were abroad (e.g. in Normandy or on crusade).
1 mark for recognising specific influential justiciars (e.g. Ranulf Flambard, Hubert Walter) and their reforms.
(Maximum 5 marks. Award marks for relevant points, with credit for detailed explanation.)
