OCR Specification focus:
‘The role and development of: the household, exchequer, chancery, justiciar and law courts; the role and power of the Crown, the nobility, the Church and administrative officials in central government.’
Central government in England from 1066 to 1216 developed a range of institutions and structures which defined medieval governance, combining administrative, financial, judicial and political authority under the Crown.
The Royal Household
The royal household was the nucleus of government and court politics. It consisted of domestic servants, clerks, and advisers who served both personal and administrative roles for the monarch.
It provided the king with military, ceremonial, and logistical support.
Clerical members of the household often doubled as secretaries, recording royal orders.
The household’s closeness to the king made it an influential body in early central government.
Royal Household: The collective body of servants, officials, and clerks who attended to the personal and administrative needs of the monarch.
The Exchequer
The Exchequer emerged as the principal financial institution. Initially a household department, it evolved into a formalised bureau.
Responsible for collection of royal revenues, such as feudal dues and taxes.
Its name derived from the chequered cloth used for accounting calculations.
Twice-yearly audits ensured accountability among sheriffs and financial officers.
The Exchequer symbolised the increasing professionalisation of administration under Norman and Angevin kings.
The Chancery
The Chancery became the kingdom’s central writing office, producing charters, writs, and letters in the king’s name.
Run by the royal chancellor, usually a senior cleric.
Issued legal documents which gave written authority to royal decisions.
Ensured consistency and legitimacy in the transmission of royal commands.
Chancery: The administrative office responsible for drafting, sealing, and recording royal writs and charters.
Its growth demonstrated the Crown’s reliance on written record and bureaucracy.
The chancery issued charters and writs under the Great Seal, providing the formal written authority for royal commands.
King John’s charter granting London the right to elect a mayor, with the Great Seal pendant on cords. It exemplifies chancery production, sealing practice, and the legal force of documents in central government. The image shows clear script and seal detail suitable for close study. Source
The Justiciar
The office of the Justiciar was one of the most powerful in medieval government.
Functioned as the king’s chief minister and regent in his absence.
Supervised law courts, finances, and local government.
Figures such as Ranulf Flambard and later Hubert Walter exemplified the wide authority vested in the role.
The justiciar acted as a bridge between the monarch’s personal rule and institutionalised administration.
Law Courts and Common Justice
The law courts embodied the king’s claim to uphold justice. Their development was crucial in shaping Common Law.
Royal courts heard pleas of the Crown and major disputes.
Local justice remained important, but royal intervention expanded through travelling justices.
Royal writs standardised legal processes, enabling subjects to appeal directly to the Crown.
This centralisation reinforced royal authority, while providing subjects with greater access to uniform justice.
Royal law courts such as the King’s Bench evolved from the curia regis, bringing professional judges and recorded procedure under the justiciar’s oversight.
An illuminated scene of the King’s Bench: multiple judges preside while defendants stand at the bar, with clerks recording proceedings. Though fifteenth-century, this portrays the mature configuration of the royal common-law courts that developed from Angevin institutional changes. Use to visualise courtroom roles and hierarchy mentioned in the syllabus. Source
The Role and Power of the Crown
The Crown was the ultimate source of authority in central government.
Monarchs claimed divine sanction for their power, which reinforced obedience.
The king controlled finance, justice, war, and ecclesiastical influence.
However, effectiveness depended on personality and political skill — strong kings like Henry I and Henry II imposed order, while weaker rulers saw instability.
Crown: The symbolic and practical embodiment of royal authority and the monarchy’s governing power.
The Nobility
The nobility played a dual role as both supporters and challengers of royal government.
They provided military service and counsel in return for land and privileges.
The baronial class often staffed key offices, such as sheriffs and justices.
Noble discontent could lead to rebellion, particularly when kings overreached or demanded excessive taxation.
Their involvement underlined the negotiated nature of medieval kingship.
The Church
The Church was central to both governance and legitimacy.
Bishops and abbots often acted as royal advisers and administrators.
The Crown relied on clerical expertise in literacy and law.
However, tensions with Rome and disputes over ecclesiastical authority (e.g., Becket’s conflict with Henry II) revealed the limits of cooperation.
The Church provided the moral framework that justified the monarchy but could also undermine it.
Administrative Officials
A growing cadre of administrative officials underpinned the machinery of government.
Sheriffs collected revenues and enforced royal justice at county level.
Royal clerks, drawn from educated clergy, staffed the chancery and exchequer.
The emergence of professional administrators marked a shift from personal to bureaucratic rule.
These officials enabled the Crown to extend control more consistently across the realm.
Interconnected Development
The institutions of household, exchequer, chancery, justiciar, and courts were not isolated. Their interdependence made government more resilient:
The household provided the nucleus of authority.
The chancery formalised commands into law.
The exchequer gathered resources for governance.
The justiciar oversaw and coordinated these functions.
Together, these structures defined the nature of central government and its reliance on both continuity and adaptation.
FAQ
The household was primarily personal to the king, managing his daily needs and immediate decisions, but it could also issue informal orders.
The chancery, by contrast, created formal written records. It produced charters, writs, and documents that bore the Great Seal, giving them official legal force.
Together, these bodies reflected the dual nature of governance: personal authority through the household and institutional authority through the chancery.
Tally sticks were wooden rods notched to indicate amounts owed. They were split lengthwise so both creditor and debtor had matching records.
This system prevented forgery and allowed sheriffs and royal officials to prove payments made or debts owed.
Their use reinforced trust and standardisation in the Exchequer’s financial management, ensuring reliable revenue for the Crown.
The justiciar was effectively the king’s deputy, exercising almost all royal powers in the monarch’s absence.
Supervised finances, justice, and local government.
Presided over the king’s court, hearing both political and legal cases.
Coordinated with the chancery and exchequer to maintain smooth governance.
This broad remit made the office second only to the king, though its effectiveness depended on the monarch’s trust and willingness to delegate.
Local and feudal courts were often inconsistent, applying regional customs and baronial interests.
Royal law courts introduced a more standardised system of justice, accessible through royal writs.
By centralising appeals and important cases, the Crown’s courts reduced arbitrary decision-making and laid foundations for common law, enhancing the king’s prestige and authority.
Clerks, usually drawn from the Church, brought literacy and record-keeping skills to government.
They drafted writs and charters in the chancery.
Maintained financial records in the exchequer.
Supported the justiciar with documentation and correspondence.
Their expertise transformed government from personal command into a bureaucratic system, ensuring continuity and precision even across reigns.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two central government institutions that developed under the Norman and Angevin kings between 1066 and 1216.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct institution named (maximum 2 marks).
Acceptable answers include: Exchequer, Chancery, Justiciar, Royal Household, Law Courts.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the role of the Exchequer contributed to the effectiveness of central government in the period 1066–1216.
Mark Scheme:
1–2 marks: Simple statement(s) about the Exchequer’s role, e.g. “It collected taxes” or “It dealt with royal revenue.”
3–4 marks: Some explanation of how its functions contributed to government, e.g. “The Exchequer audited sheriffs’ accounts, which made revenue collection more reliable and ensured the king had money to fund government.”
5–6 marks: Developed explanation linking functions to wider effectiveness, e.g. “The Exchequer’s system of tally sticks and pipe rolls standardised revenue collection across the kingdom. By increasing accountability, it limited corruption and provided the Crown with the financial stability needed for law enforcement and military campaigns, making central government more effective.”
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