OCR Specification focus:
‘The personality of Henry I; the idea of contractual kingship; the role of Roger of Salisbury; the role of Duke Robert; Henry I and Anselm; Henry I as guardian of.’
Henry I’s reign (1100–1135) was defined by assertive kingship, administrative innovation, and complex relationships with nobles and church leaders, shaping English governance for decades.
Henry I’s Personality and Style of Rule
Henry I, often nicknamed “Beauclerc” for his scholarly education, demonstrated both ruthlessness and pragmatism. His reign was characterised by a capacity to balance coercion with conciliation. Unlike his elder brother William Rufus, Henry cultivated a reputation for justice and order, which helped stabilise his early reign after his unexpected accession in 1100.
Contractual Kingship
Henry introduced the Coronation Charter (1100), sometimes described as a form of “contractual kingship”, where obligations between king and subject were formally acknowledged.
Contractual Kingship: A political understanding in which the monarch was expected to govern according to established customs and laws, protecting rights while demanding loyalty.
The charter promised:
To end oppressive practices of previous kings.
To respect the rights of the Church and nobility.
To ensure fair justice.
While largely a political manoeuvre to gain legitimacy, it set a precedent in English governance that echoed into the Magna Carta of 1215.
The Role of Roger of Salisbury
Roger of Salisbury rose from humble beginnings to become one of Henry’s most trusted administrators. As Bishop of Salisbury, he exemplified the use of “new men” — individuals elevated due to loyalty and skill rather than birth.
Achievements
Developed the Exchequer system, providing structured financial accountability.
A museum photograph of medieval Exchequer tally sticks — split, notched wooden records used to audit royal income. Their tangible form demonstrates the emergence of Pipe Roll auditing practices under Henry I’s regime. Source
Strengthened royal bureaucracy, ensuring central control over taxation and land revenues.
Oversaw administration during Henry’s absences, functioning almost as a precursor to the Justiciar role.
Roger’s rise highlighted Henry’s reliance on talent over lineage, reinforcing his reputation for pragmatic governance.
The Role of Duke Robert
Duke Robert Curthose, Henry’s elder brother, posed a persistent challenge. As heir to Normandy, Robert contested Henry’s claim to the English throne.
Key Events
Battle of Tinchebray (1106): Henry decisively defeated Robert, capturing him and taking control of Normandy.
Robert’s long imprisonment under Henry neutralised threats to the throne but strained relations with the Norman nobility.
This victory gave Henry a dual kingship of England and Normandy, but also increased the financial and military burden of maintaining continental possessions.
Henry I and Archbishop Anselm
Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury, a leading church reformer, had a complex and often tense relationship with Henry I.
Main Issues
Investiture Controversy: Disputes over whether the king or pope appointed bishops.
After negotiation, a compromise in 1107 allowed the king to receive homage from bishops for temporal lands, while the Church retained spiritual authority over investiture.
A stained-glass window of St Anselm in Canterbury Cathedral. This visual anchors his role in the investiture dispute, highlighting his authority as archbishop during Henry I’s reign. Artistic iconography extends beyond the syllabus focus but enriches historical context. Source
Investiture Controversy: A major conflict between Church and monarchs over who held the authority to appoint bishops and abbots.
The settlement illustrated Henry’s skill in balancing papal reform demands with maintaining royal authority.
Henry I as Guardian of Stability
Henry positioned himself as the guardian of peace and justice, reinforcing his legitimacy and control.
Mechanisms of Guardianship
Royal justice: He strengthened royal law courts, enhancing the king’s role as dispenser of justice.
Nobility control: Henry curtailed baronial independence by rewarding loyalists and punishing dissenters.
Dynastic stability: His careful management of succession through his daughter Matilda (after the death of his son in the White Ship disaster, 1120) demonstrated his role as protector of dynastic continuity.
Though his death in 1135 triggered the Civil War (the Anarchy) due to contested succession, his reign remained associated with strong governance and relative order.
Interconnected Leadership Themes
Henry’s reign demonstrates several themes central to OCR study:
Personal authority: His personality shaped governance more directly than formal institutions.
Administrative innovation: Figures like Roger of Salisbury built durable systems of governance.
Dynastic rivalry: Duke Robert represented the enduring instability of Norman inheritance practices.
Church relations: The compromise with Anselm reflected Henry’s political acumen in navigating reform and authority.
Guardianship: His role as a stabiliser of England and Normandy was a hallmark of his kingship.
Together, these aspects illustrate why Henry I is considered one of the most influential Norman rulers, with a reign that laid foundations for English governance well into the Angevin period.
FAQ
Henry I often promoted administrators from modest backgrounds, bypassing powerful hereditary nobles. This gave him loyal servants who owed their entire status to royal favour.
Such men, like Roger of Salisbury, were less likely to rebel and more likely to enforce central authority. It also helped Henry professionalise administration, prioritising competence over lineage.
Although Henry imprisoned his brother for life after 1106, chroniclers emphasise his decision as both ruthless and calculated.
Henry ensured Robert was treated with dignity in captivity, maintaining appearances of legitimacy. This mix of severity and control reflected Henry’s reputation for firm but pragmatic leadership.
While the Charter promised to curb abuses, enforcement was inconsistent.
Financial demands of ruling Normandy often led Henry to raise extraordinary revenues.
The Charter functioned more as a statement of ideals than a binding constitution.
Barons and clergy lacked the collective organisation to hold Henry accountable at the time.
Anselm went into exile (1103–1107) when compromise with Henry seemed impossible.
During this period, Henry collected revenues from vacant sees, strengthening his finances.
Anselm’s absence pressured both king and papacy to resolve the dispute, eventually leading to the 1107 compromise that balanced secular and spiritual powers.
The disaster of 1120 killed his only legitimate son, William Adelin.
Henry responded by:
Naming his daughter, Empress Matilda, as heir.
Forcing nobles to swear oaths of loyalty to her succession.
Seeking alliances through Matilda’s marriages, first to the Holy Roman Emperor and later to Geoffrey of Anjou.
These measures reveal his concern for continuity, though they failed to prevent civil war after his death.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name one promise made by Henry I in his Coronation Charter and explain briefly why it was significant.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying a correct promise (e.g., to end oppressive practices, respect the rights of the Church, ensure fair justice).
1 mark for explaining significance (e.g., showed an early form of contractual kingship; helped Henry secure legitimacy after his disputed accession).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how Roger of Salisbury contributed to the effectiveness of Henry I’s government.
Mark scheme:
1–2 marks: Simple statements about Roger’s role (e.g., he was Bishop of Salisbury; he was a key administrator).
3–4 marks: Some explanation of his contributions (e.g., developed the Exchequer; strengthened bureaucracy; helped enforce royal control).
5–6 marks: Developed explanation with specific detail (e.g., tally sticks and Pipe Rolls linked to Exchequer accountability; functioned as a precursor to the Justiciar; demonstrated Henry’s policy of raising “new men” to limit baronial independence).
