OCR Specification focus:
‘developments in finance, justice and administration, including the Exchequer, the royal household, the development of bureaucracy, the office of justiciar, 'men raised from the dust'; local justice and government; Henry.’
Henry I’s reign (1100–1135) marked a crucial period of institutional development, where innovations in finance, justice, and administration transformed English governance and strengthened royal authority.
Developments in Finance
The Exchequer
Henry I is credited with the creation of the Exchequer, a permanent body responsible for auditing sheriffs’ accounts and ensuring proper collection of royal revenues.
Exchequer: A central financial department established under Henry I to oversee royal revenue, audit accounts, and supervise financial administration.
The Exchequer employed a chequered cloth to perform calculations with counters, a system that ensured accountability and transparency in financial management.
Sixteen Exchequer tally sticks used to record payments with notches that encoded values, then split into matching halves for verification. The method underpinned financial accountability between sheriffs and the Exchequer. These examples date to c.1440 (later than Henry I), but they depict a practice already established in the 12th century. Source
Its functions included:
Collecting revenue from royal estates.
Auditing sheriffs and local officials.
Recording accounts on Pipe Rolls (first surviving example from 1129–1130).
A manuscript folio of a royal Pipe Roll showing lines of Latin entries that record county farms, debts and payments audited at Michaelmas by the Exchequer. The page layout demonstrates how royal finance was standardised into a durable bureaucratic record. The specific image is from 1194 (later than Henry I) but the format reflects procedures developed in his reign. Source
These records provided the Crown with detailed financial oversight, unprecedented in earlier medieval rule.
Royal Revenue and Coinage
Henry strengthened the coinage system, reducing debasement and maintaining the integrity of money supply. Control over minting reinforced royal authority and stabilised economic exchange.
Developments in Justice
Local Justice
Henry I expanded royal justice into localities, reducing the reliance on baronial or purely customary courts. Sheriffs retained their importance, but Henry introduced stronger oversight.
Itinerant justices travelled on royal circuits to extend central authority.
Customary laws were harmonised with Anglo-Norman innovations, forming early foundations of common law.
Law Enforcement
Henry’s reforms also curbed disorder by enforcing stricter penalties for rebellion and theft. By using the Crown’s courts, litigants could bypass local magnates, limiting baronial independence.
The Royal Household
Structure and Role
The royal household under Henry I became increasingly professionalised, moving beyond a personal retinue to an administrative centre of governance.
Key officials included:
Steward – oversaw domestic arrangements.
Chamberlain – managed finances within the chamber.
Constable – supervised military matters.
Marshal – managed ceremonial and military duties.
These roles gradually blurred into the machinery of governance, creating a balance between service to the monarch and institutional responsibility.
The Development of Bureaucracy
Written Records
Henry I encouraged systematic record-keeping, fostering the growth of bureaucracy. Written writs and charters became the norm for authorising decisions.
The Great Seal of Henry I shows the king enthroned on the obverse and mounted on the reverse, symbolising judicial and military authority. Seals validated writs and charters issued by the royal household and chancery, making written orders legally operative across the realm. The image illustrates how administrative government relied on recognised symbols of royal power. Source
Bureaucracy: A system of government characterised by departments, officials, and written records, ensuring consistent administration beyond the personal presence of the king.
This marked a shift from oral or ad hoc decision-making to formalised procedures, ensuring continuity of government even during the king’s absence.
The Rise of Trained Clerks
Royal administration increasingly depended on literate clerks, many trained in ecclesiastical schools. Their expertise in Latin facilitated record-keeping and communication with both localities and foreign powers.
The Office of Justiciar
Role and Authority
Henry I appointed the Justiciar as the king’s principal deputy, a post of immense authority.
Justiciar: The chief minister of the realm, acting as the king’s deputy in judicial, financial, and administrative matters.
Responsibilities included:
Presiding over royal courts in the king’s absence.
Supervising financial administration, particularly the Exchequer.
Coordinating the activities of local officials.
The Justiciar ensured central authority was effective even when Henry was occupied in Normandy or elsewhere.
Roger of Salisbury
The most famous justiciar of Henry’s reign was Roger of Salisbury, who expanded the administrative system, oversaw the Exchequer, and professionalised governance. His career exemplifies Henry’s reliance on able administrators rather than hereditary magnates.
“Men Raised from the Dust”
Henry often promoted talented individuals of low birth into high office. This policy, described by chroniclers as “raising men from the dust,” provided him with loyal servants less tied to baronial interests.
Figures like Roger of Salisbury rose from obscurity to become key administrators.
This practice undermined aristocratic dominance while reinforcing the king’s control.
It marked a shift toward meritocracy within government structures.
Local Justice and Government
Sheriffs
Sheriffs remained pivotal in local administration, collecting revenues, enforcing justice, and maintaining order. However, Henry’s tighter audits and itinerant justices reduced their ability to act independently.
Links Between Centre and Locality
Henry’s reforms ensured that local government increasingly mirrored central practices. Written writs authorised sheriff actions, itinerant justices brought royal justice into shires, and local communities became integrated into royal governance.
Foundations of Common Law
Henry I’s legal reforms laid the groundwork for the common law of later reigns by:
Integrating Anglo-Saxon customs with Norman innovations.
Establishing precedents through royal writs and recorded judgments.
Expanding the king’s justice beyond feudal courts.
The Legacy of Henry I’s Institutions
Henry I’s reign stands out for embedding structures that enabled the Crown to exert consistent authority. By professionalising finance, strengthening judicial processes, and creating a bureaucracy staffed by loyal officials, Henry transformed kingship from a personal rule into an enduring system of governance.
FAQ
The chequered cloth was a large board covered with a black-and-white grid, resembling a chessboard. Counters representing different sums of money were placed on the squares to calculate totals.
Sheriffs presented their accounts using this system, which allowed officials to visualise revenue and expenditure clearly. It reduced errors in arithmetic and ensured transparency, especially in an age with limited widespread numeracy.
The Pipe Rolls created a consistent annual audit of royal income and expenditure. Their survival provides a continuous series of financial records unique in Europe.
They standardised administrative accountability.
They offered the king detailed oversight of local officials.
They established a precedent for written record-keeping that later expanded into other government areas.
This made governance less reliant on personal memory or oral testimony.
Roger combined administrative skill with personal loyalty to Henry I. Rising from humble origins, he owed his success to the king, ensuring trust.
He introduced structured systems such as the early Exchequer and oversaw justice on the king’s behalf. His focus on efficiency and written records meant central government could operate smoothly, even during Henry’s absences in Normandy.
Written writs standardised royal commands and carried the authority of the king into local areas.
Sheriffs required a writ to act, reducing arbitrary decisions.
Communities could appeal to royal authority directly through these documents.
Writs provided a portable, enforceable form of law recognised across the kingdom.
This bridged the gap between central authority and local administration.
By elevating men of low birth, Henry I deliberately weakened the hereditary aristocracy.
These administrators depended on the king for status, making them more loyal and less likely to challenge authority. Nobles, however, saw this as an erosion of their traditional dominance, creating tensions but also limiting baronial independence.
In practice, this policy shifted power away from magnates and entrenched the idea of service-based promotion in royal government.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the primary function of the Exchequer established under Henry I?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying that the Exchequer was a central financial department.
1 mark for explaining its function in auditing accounts/collecting royal revenue.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Henry I’s reforms to local government and justice strengthened royal authority.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 2 marks for describing the role of sheriffs (e.g. collecting revenues, enforcing justice).
Up to 2 marks for noting the introduction/importance of itinerant justices extending royal courts into localities.
Up to 2 marks for explaining the reduction of baronial independence or integration of customary law with Norman innovations.
(Maximum 6 marks. Award marks for range and clarity; full marks require at least two well-explained examples showing how reforms strengthened royal power.)
