The final years of Charles II’s reign were marked by political tension, religious suspicion, and bitter debates over succession, culminating in the divisive Exclusion Crisis.

England in 1678

By the late 1670s, England faced mounting political instability. Fear of Catholic influence shaped public opinion and Parliament’s priorities. The discovery of the so-called Popish Plot in 1678, fabricated by Titus Oates, created widespread panic.

Titus Oates (1649–1705), shown in a period portrait, whose fabricated allegations ignited anti-Catholic hysteria in 1678. His claims emboldened Parliament and intensified demands to exclude James, Duke of York. Source

Allegedly, Catholics aimed to assassinate Charles II and replace him with his Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. Though false, the plot resonated with pre-existing anxieties about absolutism and foreign influence, particularly from Catholic France.

The House of Commons became emboldened, pressing Charles to act against suspected Catholics. Anti-Catholic legislation gained traction, and the atmosphere provided fertile ground for ambitious politicians seeking to exploit national fears.

Shaftesbury and Opposition

One of the leading opposition figures was Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury.

Engraved portrait of Anthony Ashley Cooper (1621–1683), a leading Whig strategist during the Exclusion Crisis. He framed resistance as a defence of Protestant liberties and used public fear of Catholicism to galvanise opposition. Source

He emerged as a central critic of the king’s government and of James’ succession. Shaftesbury aligned with a group of political allies who would later be associated with the Whigs, advocating for constitutional government and opposition to arbitrary royal power.

Shaftesbury capitalised on public fear of Catholicism to strengthen his faction. He promoted the narrative that James’ accession would endanger the Protestant religion and liberties of Englishmen.

• Shaftesbury coordinated parliamentary efforts to limit James’ influence.

• He encouraged the use of petitions and public demonstrations.

• His rhetoric framed opposition as a defence of Protestant liberty, making resistance both political and moral.

Shaftesbury’s strategies highlighted the growing divide between supporters of the monarchy and defenders of Protestant parliamentary liberties.

The Succession Issue

At the heart of political debate was the question of succession. Charles II had no legitimate heir, making his brother James the presumptive successor. His conversion to Catholicism, confirmed publicly in 1673 when he resigned from office under the Test Act, deeply alarmed Protestant opinion.

Parliamentarians feared that a Catholic monarch would:

• Undermine the Church of England.

• Reverse the gains of the Reformation.

• Draw England into alliances with Catholic powers, particularly France.

Some moderate voices proposed restrictions on James’ power should he succeed, such as appointing a Protestant regency or limiting his royal prerogatives. However, more radical members, led by Shaftesbury, demanded outright exclusion of James from the succession.

This succession issue fractured political loyalties, with royalists, later called Tories, defending hereditary right and the stability of monarchy, while Whigs pressed for exclusion to safeguard Protestantism.

The Exclusion Crisis

Between 1679 and 1681, Parliament introduced several Exclusion Bills aimed at removing James from the line of succession. The first was presented in 1679, with support from Shaftesbury and the Whigs. Charles II, however, was determined to protect his brother’s rights.

Key developments:

• 1679: First Exclusion Bill introduced but blocked when Charles dissolved Parliament.

• 1680: A second Exclusion Bill gained significant support in the Commons but was rejected by the Lords, where royalist influence remained strong.

• 1681: A third attempt took place during the Oxford Parliament. Charles dissolved it swiftly to prevent passage of the Bill.

The Exclusion Crisis not only entrenched political divisions but also established the early outlines of party politics, with Whigs supporting exclusion and Tories opposing it.

Dissolution of the Oxford Parliament

The Oxford Parliament of March 1681 was Charles II’s last attempt to manage the Exclusion Crisis. He moved the sitting to Oxford, a royalist stronghold, hoping to control proceedings.

Interior of Convocation House, Oxford, where the House of Commons met during the Oxford Parliament of 1681. The royalist setting reinforced Charles II’s determination to suppress Whig demands for exclusion. Source

Shaftesbury and the Whigs pushed vigorously for another Exclusion Bill. Charles dissolved Parliament after only a week, ending the legislative battle.

Following the dissolution:

• Charles ruled without Parliament for the remainder of his reign.

• He relied increasingly on French subsidies to maintain independence from parliamentary grants.

• Opposition figures, including Shaftesbury, lost influence and faced repression.

This dissolution underscored Charles’ determination to preserve hereditary succession and set the stage for the political alignments that defined the later Stuart period.

The Political Landscape after 1681

Though the Exclusion Crisis ended in royalist victory, its impact was profound:

• Whigs were associated with resistance to arbitrary rule and advocacy of Protestant succession.

• Tories became the defenders of monarchy, hereditary succession, and the Anglican Church.

• The episode intensified the ideological divisions that would continue into the reigns of James II and William III.

The conflict of 1678–1681 thus revealed the limits of royal authority, the potency of religious fear in shaping politics, and the emergence of enduring party identities in English political life.