OCR Specification focus:
‘James and the Catholics; Declarations of Indulgence; Seven Bishops Trial; birth of an heir.’
James II’s reign (1685–1688) was defined by attempts to expand Catholic influence in a Protestant kingdom. His policies, Declarations of Indulgence, and the Bishops’ Trial marked a political and religious crisis that culminated in the Glorious Revolution.
James II and Catholic Policies
James II, openly Catholic, aimed to reverse the Protestant establishment solidified after the Reformation. His accession immediately raised fears among Protestants, despite reassurances in his coronation speech that he would protect the Church of England. His policies increasingly favoured Catholics, which appeared to many as an assault on the existing religious and political balance.
Catholic Appointments
Military and government offices: James promoted Catholics into positions of power, bypassing the Test Acts, which excluded Catholics from public office.
Universities and local authority: Catholics were also placed in university posts and civic corporations.
This challenged the legal framework underpinning Protestant supremacy, heightening suspicion and opposition.
Test Acts: A series of laws passed between 1673 and 1678 requiring holders of public office to swear allegiance to the Anglican Church and reject Catholic doctrine.
The king’s disregard for such laws reinforced the perception that he sought absolute authority without parliamentary consent.
The Declarations of Indulgence
James issued two Declarations of Indulgence (1687 and 1688). These suspended penal laws against both Catholics and Protestant dissenters, offering a general toleration of worship.
Key Features
Suspension of penal laws: James bypassed Parliament by using his dispensing power, enabling Catholics and dissenters to worship freely.
Promotion of religious liberty: The king framed the Indulgence as a matter of conscience and fairness, appealing to nonconformists disaffected by Anglican dominance.
Requirement for public reading: In 1688, James ordered that the Declaration be read aloud in every Anglican parish, directly challenging the clergy.
First page of James II’s Declaration of Indulgence (1687), a royal proclamation suspending penal laws against Catholics and Protestant dissenters. The page shows the formal style and legal framing underpinning the king’s policy. It is a faithful reproduction from a reputable collection. Source
Dispensing Power: The royal prerogative claimed by monarchs to exempt individuals or groups from the application of certain laws.
By forcing the clergy to publicise the Indulgence, James alienated not only bishops but also much of the parish-level Anglican establishment, undermining a crucial base of support.
The Seven Bishops’ Trial
Resistance to the Declarations came to a head with the famous Seven Bishops’ Trial of 1688. Seven senior bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, petitioned James against the reading of the Declaration in churches. They argued that his use of the dispensing power was illegal.
Events of the Trial
The bishops presented their petition respectfully, emphasising their loyalty to the crown.
James, angered by their defiance, ordered their arrest for seditious libel.
Line-engraved group portrait showing the Seven Bishops who petitioned against the reading of the Declaration and were sent to the Tower in 1688. It visualises the moment of confrontation between royal policy and the Anglican hierarchy. Clean composition and labelled sitters support close study. Source
The trial became a national spectacle, widely reported and followed by the public.
The jury acquitted the bishops, a dramatic victory for the Anglican establishment and a humiliating blow to James. Public celebrations followed the verdict, demonstrating widespread opposition to royal overreach.
Seditious Libel: A crime under English common law referring to the publication of material intended to incite discontent or opposition against authority.
The trial epitomised the conflict between royal prerogative and rule of law, with the verdict reinforcing the limits of arbitrary monarchy.
The Birth of an Heir
In June 1688, the birth of James’s son, James Francis Edward Stuart, introduced a further crisis.
Exhibit at Kensington Palace: a state bed possibly associated with the 1688 birth of James Francis Edward Stuart. It offers a tangible context for the heir’s arrival, which transformed the political calculus in 1688. This museum detail exceeds the syllabus slightly by showing the physical setting; treat attribution as probable, not certain. Source
Until then, many Protestants had tolerated James’s reign on the assumption that his Protestant daughters, Mary and Anne, would succeed him. A Catholic male heir, however, raised the prospect of a permanent Catholic dynasty.
Reactions
Rumours and scepticism: Many contemporaries questioned the legitimacy of the birth, spreading rumours that the child had been smuggled into the queen’s bedchamber.
Political alarm: For Protestants, the birth destroyed any hope that the monarchy would revert naturally to Protestant rule.
Increased opposition: The combination of the heir’s birth and the Bishops’ Trial directly encouraged political elites to look abroad for a solution.
Political and Religious Crisis
By 1688, James’s policies had alienated nearly every major political and religious constituency:
Tories, usually loyal to monarchy, turned against him due to his assault on the Anglican Church.
Whigs, long suspicious of royal Catholic sympathies, now found common cause with Tory opponents.
Parliament had been bypassed and undermined, reducing its ability to act as a stabilising force.
The public saw the bishops’ acquittal as a defence of Protestant liberties against royal tyranny.
The birth of a Catholic heir, the issuing of Declarations of Indulgence, and the Bishops’ Trial combined to convince many that James intended to establish an absolutist Catholic monarchy, fundamentally altering the balance of power in England.
Significance
The Declarations of Indulgence highlighted James’s willingness to override parliamentary statute through prerogative powers.
The Seven Bishops’ Trial showcased the growing strength of legal resistance to absolutism and the role of the judiciary as a check on monarchical authority.
The birth of a Catholic heir eliminated the possibility of a short-lived Catholic monarchy, convincing opposition groups that drastic action was necessary.
Together, these events created the immediate conditions for the Glorious Revolution of 1688, when William of Orange was invited to intervene. The subsubtopic illustrates the profound clash between monarchy, law, and religion, central to understanding the revolutionary transformation of English politics.
FAQ
James hoped that by granting toleration to both Catholics and Protestant dissenters, he could build a broad base of support outside the Anglican establishment.
He assumed dissenters would back him against Anglican dominance and that Catholics would secure his personal loyalty. In practice, however, most dissenters distrusted his motives and feared long-term Catholic dominance.
Reactions varied, but many clergy refused, seeing it as compromising their duty to uphold the law and protect the Church of England.
Some reluctantly complied to avoid punishment.
Others resisted, believing obedience would make them complicit in undermining Protestantism.
This widespread reluctance demonstrated the depth of Anglican opposition to James’s policies.
Public opinion was overwhelmingly supportive of the bishops. Crowds cheered them as they were taken to trial and celebrated their acquittal.
This visible backing placed pressure on the jury to act independently and reflected national opposition to James’s religious policies. It also underscored the importance of popular legitimacy in late Stuart politics.
Foreign rulers, particularly in Protestant Europe, saw the birth as confirmation that Catholic succession in England was secure.
The event increased support for William of Orange’s intervention because it threatened the European Protestant balance of power. William could now argue that action was essential to prevent England becoming a permanent Catholic ally of France.
The controversy extended to constitutional issues. By suspending laws without parliamentary approval, James was seen to undermine the rule of law.
Parliament’s authority to legislate was bypassed.
Precedent was set for arbitrary royal government.
Thus, resistance was not only about Catholicism but also about defending England’s conszitutional tradition.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name one reason why the Seven Bishops opposed James II’s Declaration of Indulgence.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying a valid reason.
1 additional mark for some development or explanation.
Examples:They believed the use of the dispensing power to suspend laws was illegal (1 mark).
They feared it undermined the authority of Parliament and the Anglican Church (1 mark).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain why the birth of James II’s son, James Francis Edward Stuart, in 1688 created a political crisis in England.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 2 marks for clear explanation of the immediate impact.
Up to 2 marks for reference to Protestant succession concerns.
Up to 2 marks for contextual development.
Indicative points:
The birth of a Catholic heir meant there would be a continuing Catholic monarchy (2 marks).
This ended hopes that Mary or Anne, both Protestants, would soon succeed James (2 marks).
Rumours of illegitimacy reflected widespread mistrust and fuelled opposition to James (1–2 marks).
It encouraged elites to consider external intervention, helping trigger the Glorious Revolution (1–2 marks).
_-_British_Museum.jpg){kind=link}
