OCR Specification focus:
‘the crisis of 1688; invitation to William; William’s decision to invade’
The crisis of 1688 marked a turning point in English history, as political, religious, and dynastic tensions converged, prompting William of Orange’s invitation and subsequent invasion.
The Crisis of 1688
The crisis of 1688 stemmed from the reign of James II, whose pro-Catholic policies alarmed the predominantly Protestant political elite. James’ actions—such as issuing the Declarations of Indulgence and prosecuting the Seven Bishops—deepened fears of a Catholic absolutist monarchy. Until June 1688, opposition had hoped for James’ death without a male heir, leaving his Protestant daughter Mary (married to William of Orange) as successor.
This expectation collapsed when James’ second wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth to a son, James Francis Edward Stuart, in June 1688. This Catholic heir threatened a long Catholic dynasty, provoking widespread alarm across political and religious elites.
Key Concerns Leading to Crisis
Religious fears: Potential establishment of Catholic dominance in politics, church, and education.
Dynastic fears: Birth of a Catholic heir displaced Protestant succession hopes.
Political fears: James’ attempts to control Parliament and remodel corporations threatened constitutional balance.
The crisis was immediate: if unchallenged, James II could secure an enduring Catholic monarchy.
The Invitation to William
Against this backdrop, a group of influential Protestant nobles and political leaders—later known as the Immortal Seven—took decisive action. They represented both Whig and Tory interests, united by fear of Catholic absolutism.
The Immortal Seven
Key figures: Henry Compton (Bishop of London), William Cavendish (Earl of Devonshire), Thomas Osborne (Earl of Danby), and others.
Motivation: To safeguard Protestantism, parliamentary liberties, and political stability.
Method: They secretly invited William of Orange to intervene militarily.
Extract from the 30 June 1688 letter by the ‘Immortal Seven’ inviting William of Orange to intervene in England. The text promises broad support to defend religion, liberties, and properties, offering William crucial legitimacy. This primary source underpins the constitutional framing of the intervention. Source
Immortal Seven: A group of seven English nobles who invited William of Orange to invade England in 1688, triggering the Glorious Revolution.
The invitation to William promised broad support if he landed with an army. Importantly, they framed the intervention as a defence of English liberties rather than a foreign conquest, giving William legitimacy.
William’s Strategic Calculations
William of Orange, already Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, weighed the invitation against his own European interests.
Political Considerations
Marriage alliance: His wife, Mary, was James II’s Protestant daughter and rightful heir if James were deposed.
European context: William sought to strengthen the Dutch position against Louis XIV of France, James’ Catholic ally.
Legitimacy: By accepting the invitation, William could portray himself as defender of Protestantism and English freedoms.
Military Preparations
Army strength: William prepared a fleet and army of approximately 15,000 soldiers.
Logistics: Careful planning ensured Dutch support and coordination with English conspirators.
Timing: The planned invasion was delayed until autumn, awaiting favourable weather and the assurance of English backing.
The Decision to Invade
William ultimately decided to invade in the autumn of 1688. His decision was not made lightly; it reflected a combination of ideological commitment, political strategy, and military calculation.
Map showing William of Orange’s solid-line march from Brixham (Torbay) to London in 1688. This visualises the geographic scope and strategic direction of the invasion. Also shown (not required by the syllabus) is Monmouth’s dashed 1685 route for context. Source
Factors Behind the Decision
Religious duty: William portrayed his actions as a defence of Protestantism against Catholic encroachment.
English support: The Immortal Seven’s invitation guaranteed him a base of legitimacy and allies among England’s political elite.
Continental strategy: Weakening James II reduced France’s influence and strengthened the Dutch Republic’s security.
Dynastic opportunity: His wife Mary’s claim to the throne allowed William to justify his role as protector rather than usurper.
Glorious Revolution: The 1688 overthrow of James II, achieved by William of Orange’s invasion and Parliament’s subsequent settlement, establishing Protestant constitutional monarchy.
William’s decision ensured that his invasion would not appear as a conquest but rather as the fulfilment of an English call for aid.
Wider Significance of the Invitation and Decision
The invitation to William and his subsequent decision to invade directly triggered the Glorious Revolution. Without the Immortal Seven’s intervention, William might have hesitated, and James II could have consolidated his rule. Conversely, without William’s willingness to invade, English opposition lacked the military force to challenge James effectively.
Consequences of William’s Decision
Shift of power: Parliament, not the monarch, became the arbiter of succession.
Religious settlement: Secured the Protestant succession through William and Mary.
Foreign policy: England joined the wider European coalition against Louis XIV, shaping eighteenth-century geopolitics.
The episode revealed the deep interconnection between religious tension, dynastic uncertainty, and international politics in late seventeenth-century England.
FAQ
The birth of James Francis Edward Stuart was a turning point because it replaced the expectation that Mary, a Protestant, would succeed.
Instead, a Catholic male heir meant the likelihood of a permanent Catholic dynasty. This heightened fears among the political elite and clergy that England would align more closely with Catholic France.
The event transformed opposition into action, as it removed the hope that time alone would secure a Protestant succession.
William circulated declarations across England presenting his intervention as a defence of English liberties and Protestantism rather than a conquest.
He framed himself as answering the call of the English nobility, not acting independently.
This messaging helped secure widespread support and reassured many that his landing would not be seen as foreign domination.
Organising a cross-Channel invasion required careful coordination:
Securing Dutch financial backing for ships and soldiers.
Timing the fleet to avoid French interception.
Maintaining secrecy while preparing over 400 ships.
Weather was the greatest obstacle; storms initially delayed the fleet, but a favourable wind later enabled safe passage and landing at Torbay.
Torbay in Devon offered a relatively undefended and sympathetic entry point.
The West Country harboured strong Protestant sentiment, and James II had less direct military presence there.
The location also allowed William to advance slowly towards London, gathering support and avoiding early confrontation with James’ forces.
William’s main rival was Louis XIV of France, who supported Catholic powers across Europe.
By securing England, William hoped to:
Strengthen the Dutch Republic’s position in the war against France.
Ensure England would not ally with Louis XIV under James II.
Build a powerful coalition of Protestant and anti-French states.
Thus, the invitation aligned perfectly with his wider continental strategy.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Who were the ‘Immortal Seven’ and what role did they play in the Glorious Revolution?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying that they were a group of leading nobles/political figures in 1688.
1 mark for stating that they invited William of Orange to intervene in England.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why William of Orange decided to invade England in 1688.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 2 marks for discussing religious motives:
• To defend Protestantism against James II’s Catholic policies.Up to 2 marks for political motives:
• Support from the Immortal Seven provided legitimacy.
• Mary’s claim to the throne gave dynastic justification.Up to 2 marks for strategic/foreign policy motives:
• Weakening James II reduced French influence and strengthened the Dutch Republic.
• William sought to secure England as an ally against Louis XIV.
