Presidents often cannot command Congress, so they rely on informal tools to get “yes” votes. Bargaining and persuasion translate the president’s priorities into legislative coalitions by mixing relationships, attention, and targeted incentives.

What “bargaining and persuasion” means in practice

The Constitution gives presidents formal powers, but lawmaking still requires congressional majorities. Informal influence is therefore central to governing, especially when policy is contested or Congress is closely divided.

Persuasion is often “wholesale” (shaping broad support), while bargaining is “retail” (securing individual members’ cooperation). Together, they help presidents secure congressional action even when they lack guaranteed votes.

Why Congress is the main target

Presidents bargain and persuade to:

• Move priority legislation through committees and to floor votes

• Reduce opposition or win cross-party support

• Keep their party unified when factions threaten defections

• Shape the content of bills through behind-the-scenes negotiation

Core resources presidents leverage

The syllabus emphasises three major leverage points: relationships, public attention, and political incentives. These work best when combined.

1) Relationships (access, trust, and information)

President Barack Obama meets with top congressional leaders in the White House Cabinet Room (July 13, 2011) to negotiate over the debt limit and deficit reduction. The image is a clear visual example of how presidents rely on personal access, trust, and ongoing elite relationships to bargain for legislative movement when formal authority alone is insufficient. Source

Presidents and their teams cultivate ongoing ties with:

• Party leaders who control scheduling and strategy

• Committee chairs who shape hearings, markups, and bill language

• Rank-and-file members whose votes are needed in close contests

Relationship-based persuasion relies on:

• Frequent contact (calls, meetings, invitations)

• Policy expertise and briefings from the White House

• Signalling respect for congressional priorities and district/state concerns

Personal relationships matter because legislators face different incentives than the president, including constituency pressures, donor networks, and party factions.

2) Public attention (changing the political cost of “no”)

Presidents can elevate issues to increase pressure on legislators by:

• Framing an issue as urgent or morally compelling

• Highlighting benefits to the national interest or local communities

• Using major speeches, interviews, and events to sustain coverage

Public attention is a tool of persuasion because it can alter legislators’ calculations:

• Supporting the president may become safer if the issue is popular

• Opposing the president may become riskier if it draws negative scrutiny

• Media focus can force members to take positions rather than delay

3) Political incentives (inducements and trade-offs)

Presidential bargaining frequently involves offering help or withholding it. Common incentives include:

• Policy concessions (accepting amendments, narrowing scope, timing changes)

• Credit-claiming opportunities (public praise, bill-signing visibility)

• Electoral support (campaign appearances, fundraising help, endorsements)

• Administrative cooperation (prioritising a member’s concerns in implementation)

Political incentives work best when they align a legislator’s re-election goals with the president’s policy agenda.

How bargaining and persuasion typically unfold

Presidential influence is often iterative rather than one decisive moment:

• Identify pivotal legislators (swing votes, faction leaders, key committees)

This map depicts a U.S. House roll-call vote (H.R. 3684, the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, November 5, 2021) by party and vote choice. It visually reinforces how presidents and their teams must locate pivotal blocs and potential cross-party defections in order to target persuasion and “retail” bargaining effectively. Source

• Set priorities (what is non-negotiable vs. tradable)

• Use staff “whips” to count votes and map objections

• Offer targeted concessions and seek reciprocal commitments

• Reframe the bill publicly to broaden support when needed

Conditions that strengthen or weaken presidential influence

Bargaining and persuasion are more effective when:

• The president’s party holds congressional majorities

• Approval ratings are high (members anticipate electoral benefits)

• The issue is salient and public attention favours action

• The policy can be tailored to diverse coalitions without collapsing

They are less effective when:

• Polarisation makes cross-party cooperation costly

• Party leaders face internal revolts

• Members fear primary challenges more than general elections

• The president’s credibility is damaged by recent losses or scandals

Limits and trade-offs

Informal power is not cost-free. Concessions can:

• Dilute policy goals

• Anger parts of the president’s coalition

• Encourage future demands from Congress

Public attention can also backfire by hardening opposition, especially if legislators view presidential pressure as intrusive or if the issue becomes a partisan identity marker.