AP Syllabus focus:
‘Increased U.S. military spending, Reagan-era diplomacy, and political and economic crises in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union helped bring the Cold War to an end.’
The Cold War ended through a combination of American strategic pressure, Soviet internal weaknesses, diplomatic breakthroughs, and shifting global political currents that reshaped superpower relations after 1980.
The Strategic Pressure of U.S. Military Expansion
Ronald Reagan’s administration adopted a confrontational stance toward the Soviet Union, increasing political and economic pressure on a system already strained by decades of inefficiency. Central to this approach was a major buildup of nuclear and conventional weapons, designed both to deter Soviet actions and to force Soviet leaders to reassess the sustainability of the arms race.
Reagan’s Defense Spending and the Arms Race
Reagan’s surge in defense expenditures was intended to outmatch Soviet capabilities. This strategy operated on the assumption that the U.S. economy could support long-term military expansion more effectively than the Soviet command economy.
Accelerated production of strategic nuclear weapons and improvements to delivery systems.
Development of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), which, although never fully implemented, threatened to undermine the credibility of the Soviet nuclear deterrent.
Expanded funding for conventional forces, strengthening U.S. global military reach.
The increased pressure deepened the Soviet Union’s economic burdens and forced Soviet leaders to consider de-escalation to preserve state stability.
Soviet Political and Economic Crises
By the early 1980s, the Soviet economy had stagnated, failing to keep pace with technological and industrial advances occurring in the West. The system struggled with low productivity, limited technological innovation, and the high costs of maintaining a vast military empire.
Internal Weaknesses in the Soviet System
Multiple structural issues converged to weaken Soviet power:
Declining agricultural output and chronic shortages in consumer goods.
Central planning inefficiencies that hindered modernization.
Burdensome defense expenditures that consumed a disproportionate share of national resources.
Mounting dissatisfaction in Eastern European satellite states.
Gorbachev’s Reforms and Their Unintended Consequences
When Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985, he introduced perestroika (economic restructuring) and glasnost (openness) to revive the struggling system.
Perestroika: A set of reforms intended to decentralize economic control and introduce limited market mechanisms into the Soviet economy.
These reforms aimed to strengthen socialism, not abandon it, yet they exposed deep systemic weaknesses and accelerated demands for political freedoms.
After Gorbachev’s reforms began reshaping Soviet society, grassroots movements across Eastern Europe gained new momentum to challenge communist rule.
Diplomatic Shifts and the Easing of Superpower Tensions
Reagan-era diplomacy became increasingly cooperative by the late 1980s as both sides recognized the unsustainable nature of confrontation. Gorbachev’s willingness to negotiate opened pathways for arms reduction and political dialogue.
Key Diplomatic Achievements
The late Cold War featured several landmark moments:
The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty of 1987, eliminating an entire class of nuclear missiles.
Increased communication between Washington and Moscow, reducing the likelihood of accidental escalation.
A gradual shift in rhetoric, as both Reagan and Gorbachev publicly signaled their desire to avoid conflict.
Diplomacy reassured European allies and set conditions for the peaceful resolution of long-standing tensions.
Upheaval in Eastern Europe and the Collapse of Communist Governments
Political and economic crises touched every corner of the Soviet sphere. Eastern European nations saw rapid transformations as reform movements gained support and communist regimes lost legitimacy.
Popular Movements and the Decline of Soviet Influence
Civil society organizations, labor unions, and pro-democracy groups became increasingly bold:
Solidarity in Poland achieved legal recognition and participated in free elections.
Hungary opened its borders, facilitating escapes from East Germany.
East Germans launched mass protests, contributing to the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989.
Crowds gather on the Berlin Wall near the Brandenburg Gate on the night the border opened in November 1989. The scene illustrates how popular protests helped collapse communist regimes across Eastern Europe. The image includes additional contextual details such as signage and lighting that reinforce the historical moment being depicted. Source.
Glasnost: A policy promoting greater transparency in government, expanded freedom of expression, and increased public discussion of political issues.
As reforms in Eastern Europe unfolded, the Soviet Union chose not to intervene militarily, signaling a decisive shift in Cold War power dynamics.
The Dissolution of the Soviet Union
Political fractures widened within the Soviet Republics as nationalist movements demanded autonomy. By 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist, bringing an official end to the Cold War.
This map illustrates the territorial extent of the USSR, highlighting its vast, multi-republic composition. It supports understanding of how a large, diverse state fragmented into independent nations in 1991. The map contains additional geographic detail beyond AP U.S. History requirements, but it clarifies the scale and complexity of the Soviet Union. Source.
Factors Leading to Soviet Collapse
Several interlocking causes contributed to dissolution:
Economic deterioration aggravated by internal reforms and external pressures.
Failed coup attempt by hardliners in August 1991, undermining remaining authority.
Growing power of republic leaders, especially in Russia, who rejected centralized control.
The collapse eliminated the bipolar global structure that had defined U.S. foreign policy since the late 1940s, marking the end of the Cold War.
FAQ
The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) threatened to undermine the logic of nuclear deterrence by suggesting the United States could defend itself from missile attacks.
Soviet leaders feared they would be unable to match the technology or afford comparable systems, which intensified concerns about economic exhaustion and strategic vulnerability.
Gorbachev abandoned the long-standing expectation that the Soviet Union would use force to maintain control over Eastern Europe.
He reduced military commitments abroad, prioritised domestic reform, and accepted political change in satellite states, marking a sharp departure from previous interventionist policies.
Communist regimes lacked popular legitimacy and depended heavily on Soviet military support.
Once it became clear the Soviet Union would not intervene, opposition movements gained momentum, leading to swift political collapse across multiple countries.
The Soviet command economy struggled to innovate, particularly in consumer technology and productivity.
Competition with a more dynamic U.S. economy highlighted inefficiencies and reduced living standards, increasing public dissatisfaction and weakening state authority.
While 1989 symbolised the collapse of communist control in Eastern Europe, the Cold War formally ended when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991.
The disappearance of one superpower eliminated the bipolar global system that had defined Cold War rivalry.
Practice Questions
(2 marks)
Identify and briefly explain one factor that contributed to the end of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union in the late 1980s.
(2 marks)
1 mark for correctly identifying a valid factor that contributed to the end of the Cold War. Acceptable answers include:
Increased U.S. military spending under Ronald Reagan
Reagan-era diplomacy and arms control agreements
Economic stagnation in the Soviet Union
Gorbachev’s reforms (perestroika or glasnost)
Political unrest in Eastern Europe
1 mark for a brief but accurate explanation of how the identified factor helped bring the Cold War to an end.
Example: explaining that increased U.S. military spending strained the Soviet economy and encouraged negotiations.
(5 marks)
Explain how both U.S. policies and internal problems within the Soviet Union contributed to the end of the Cold War. In your answer, refer to developments in the period from 1980 to 1991.
(5 marks)
Marks should be awarded as follows:
Up to 2 marks for explaining U.S. policies that contributed to the end of the Cold War.
1 mark for identifying a relevant U.S. policy (e.g. military buildup, Strategic Defense Initiative, diplomacy, arms reduction treaties).
1 mark for explaining how this policy increased pressure on the Soviet Union or reduced superpower tensions.
Up to 2 marks for explaining internal Soviet problems that contributed to the Cold War’s end.
1 mark for identifying an internal issue (e.g. economic stagnation, inefficiencies of central planning, nationalist movements, Gorbachev’s reforms).
1 mark for explaining how this issue weakened Soviet power or reduced its ability to compete with the United States.
1 mark for demonstrating clear historical understanding by linking U.S. actions and Soviet weaknesses together to show how they collectively led to the Cold War’s end by 1991.
