The period 1840–1895 saw rapid American expansion, driven by geographical challenges and ideological motivations such as Manifest Destiny, reshaping national identity and policies.
The geographical layout of North America
The Great American Desert
In the early-to-mid 19th century, much of the central and western regions of North America were labeled by European-American explorers and settlers as the Great American Desert. This term was used to describe a vast expanse of land stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. It included areas of modern-day Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, Oklahoma, and parts of Texas and Colorado.
The region was dominated by open prairies, sparse vegetation, low rainfall, and a semi-arid climate.
Because the land lacked forests and had few navigable rivers, early settlers and geographers believed it was unsuitable for farming and inhospitable for large-scale settlement.
This perception was reinforced by early military and governmental expeditions such as those led by Stephen H. Long, who described the area as "almost wholly unfit for cultivation."
Despite its apparent barrenness, the land was home to numerous Plains Indian tribes who had adapted their lifestyle to the environment through nomadic hunting, particularly of the buffalo, and the use of horses for mobility.
As American expansion continued, settlers came to understand that while the region posed challenges, it could be transformed for agriculture with the right technologies, such as dry farming, windmills, and later, the steel plow. However, during the earlier decades of westward expansion, the Great American Desert was largely seen as a natural boundary—a place to pass through rather than settle.
Terrain and natural obstacles
The topography of North America greatly influenced the movement of people and the planning of infrastructure during the 19th century:
The Appalachian Mountains to the east initially limited westward movement until transportation innovations allowed settlers to cross more easily.
The Mississippi and Missouri Rivers acted both as transportation arteries and natural obstacles to be crossed.
The Rocky Mountains, further west, presented significant logistical difficulties. Crossing these rugged, snow-capped peaks required careful planning and often resulted in hardship or loss.
The Great Plains, while flat and open, lacked wood for building and fuel, and its climate—with extreme winters and dry summers—posed unique challenges for agriculture and survival.
The landscape shaped migration routes, including famous trails like the Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail, and California Trail, which were often dictated by river systems, passes, and safe watering points.
The concept of Manifest Destiny
Definition and origins
Manifest Destiny was a 19th-century belief that the expansion of the United States across the North American continent was both justified and inevitable. Coined by journalist John L. O’Sullivan in 1845, the term was used to promote the annexation of Texas and the Oregon Territory, but its ideological roots ran deeper.
It was the idea that Americans were divinely chosen to spread civilization, democracy, and Christianity across the continent. According to this worldview, the U.S. was destined—by God and by history—to occupy and control all the land from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.
It was seen as a mission to “redeem” and “remake” the West in the image of agrarian, democratic America.
The belief often justified the displacement of Native Americans, the Mexican-American War, and the imposition of American values and systems on diverse peoples and territories.
Though originally a phrase used in specific political contexts, Manifest Destiny quickly gained traction and became a national ethos—an idea embraced across society, from political leaders to newspaper editors, farmers, and schoolteachers.
Core beliefs and motivations
Manifest Destiny was underpinned by several ideological currents:
American exceptionalism: The belief that the United States had a unique role in the world as a beacon of liberty, democracy, and individual rights.
Protestant religious ideals: Many Americans believed that spreading Protestant Christianity was a moral duty, viewing indigenous and Catholic populations as inferior or heathen.
Racism and white supremacy: Central to Manifest Destiny was the assumption that Anglo-Saxon Americans were culturally and racially superior to Native Americans, Mexicans, and others.
Expansion of slavery vs. free states: As the country grew, so did the debate over slavery. Some proponents of Manifest Destiny wanted to expand slaveholding territories, while others aimed to spread free labor ideals.
Economic gain: Expansion was seen as an opportunity for cheap land, resource exploitation, and increased trade, particularly with the emerging economies of the Pacific.
These beliefs allowed settlers and politicians to view expansion not just as beneficial, but as morally righteous, even in the face of war, displacement, and violence.
Impact on American attitudes toward expansion
National enthusiasm and settler ambition
The concept of Manifest Destiny created a powerful sense of purpose and optimism about the future:
Newspapers, schoolbooks, and public speeches regularly invoked the language of destiny, divine will, and national mission.
“Go West, young man” became a national motto, urging Americans to pursue land and opportunity beyond the frontier.
There was a strong belief that western expansion would strengthen democracy, disperse overcrowded urban populations, and offer economic independence to poor families.
This enthusiasm drove hundreds of thousands of settlers, land speculators, and entrepreneurs westward during the 1840s and 1850s, culminating in the California Gold Rush (1848–1855) and the mass migration to Oregon and Texas.
Government support and political leadership
The U.S. government actively supported expansion through both legislation and military force:
The Preemption Act (1841) allowed squatters to purchase land they had already settled at low prices.
The Annexation of Texas (1845) and the Mexican-American War (1846–1848) led to the acquisition of more than 500,000 square miles of territory.
President James K. Polk was one of the most vocal supporters of Manifest Destiny. Under his leadership, the U.S. expanded into the Southwest, Pacific Northwest, and California.
Government support also came in the form of railroad subsidies, land surveys, and military protection of settlers.
Territorial expansion and land acquisitions
Manifest Destiny influenced several major land acquisitions and treaties:
Louisiana Purchase (1803) – Doubled the size of the U.S. and laid the foundation for western settlement.
Annexation of Texas (1845) – Led directly to war with Mexico.
Oregon Treaty (1846) – Peacefully settled territorial disputes with Britain, securing the Pacific Northwest.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) – Ended the Mexican-American War and ceded California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of several other states.
Gadsden Purchase (1854) – Acquired land in southern Arizona and New Mexico for a southern transcontinental railroad.
Each of these acquisitions was justified through Manifest Destiny, often at the expense of existing populations.
Impact of expansion policies
Railroad development and economic integration
Railroads were crucial to turning ideological goals into practical realities:
The Pacific Railway Acts (1862 and 1864) provided land and funding for the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad, completed in 1869.
Railroads enabled the mass migration of settlers and the movement of goods, crops, and raw materials, integrating distant regions into the national economy.
Railroad companies received millions of acres in federal land grants, which they sold to settlers, immigrants, and investors, often promoting aggressive land settlement campaigns in Europe.
This development allowed the American economy to grow rapidly while consolidating control over newly acquired territories.
Impact on Native Americans
The ideological and physical expansion of the U.S. had catastrophic consequences for Native American communities:
Forced relocations like the Trail of Tears (1830s) and subsequent resettlement in designated Indian Territory became common.
Treaties signed under duress were frequently broken or reinterpreted, resulting in further loss of land and autonomy.
Native resistance was met with military retaliation, and traditional lifeways were undermined by the destruction of the buffalo herds and confinement to reservations.
The perception of Native Americans as obstacles to progress justified widespread violence and cultural erasure.
As Manifest Destiny reached its peak, Native peoples found themselves increasingly marginalized, displaced, and subjected to assimilationist policies.
Social and cultural implications
Manifest Destiny left a lasting mark on American culture and society:
It encouraged a romanticized vision of the frontier as a place of heroic adventure and moral testing, seen in dime novels, newspapers, and art.
Expansion solidified ideas of American identity based on rugged individualism, self-reliance, and the superiority of Western civilization.
These narratives excluded or distorted the experiences of Native Americans, Mexicans, African Americans, and other groups.
While often portrayed as a triumph of progress, expansion under Manifest Destiny relied on violence, coercion, and systematic inequality, laying the groundwork for many of the social and political tensions that would emerge in later decades.
FAQ
The press played a crucial role in spreading and reinforcing the idea of Manifest Destiny. Newspapers such as the New York Morning News, where John L. O’Sullivan first coined the term in 1845, championed expansion as a national right and duty. Editors framed expansion as a heroic mission, portraying it as morally just, inevitable, and divinely sanctioned. Newspaper articles and political cartoons depicted Native Americans as obstacles to progress and romanticized the life of pioneers. This constant messaging shaped public opinion and generated support for territorial acquisition and westward migration. Pamphlets, books, and serialized adventure stories encouraged Americans to see the West as a land of opportunity, masking the violence and displacement that accompanied expansion. The growing influence of mass media helped turn Manifest Destiny from a political slogan into a widely accepted national ideology, influencing voting behavior, migration patterns, and even military recruitment during key expansionist campaigns such as the Mexican-American War.
Manifest Destiny directly influenced American foreign policy by encouraging aggressive territorial expansion and diplomatic assertiveness. It justified actions like the annexation of Texas in 1845, despite opposition from Mexico, and contributed to the outbreak of the Mexican-American War in 1846. The belief in a divine right to expand also drove the negotiation of the Oregon Treaty with Britain in 1846, which secured U.S. control of present-day Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. These actions were seen not just as territorial gains, but as steps toward fulfilling a continental mission. American policymakers often pursued land acquisition with little regard for the sovereignty of other nations, asserting dominance through both military action and diplomatic pressure. The ideology also laid the groundwork for later expansionist policies beyond the continental U.S., influencing attitudes toward the Caribbean and Pacific regions. In short, Manifest Destiny made expansion a central aim of U.S. diplomacy, often prioritizing ideology over peaceful relations.
While Manifest Destiny was widely accepted, it also faced significant opposition from various individuals and groups. Some Northerners feared that expansion would extend slavery into new territories, increasing the political power of slaveholding states. Prominent abolitionists like Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison argued that Manifest Destiny was a mask for slavery’s spread. Others, especially religious and humanitarian reformers, objected to the treatment of Native Americans and Mexicans during expansion. They condemned the violent displacement and cultural destruction that accompanied settlement. In Congress, some Whigs and political moderates opposed the Mexican-American War, calling it an unjust and imperialist conflict. Critics also warned that rapid expansion could overstretch government resources and increase tensions between regions. Even among settlers, there were concerns about the risks and uncertainties of moving west. Thus, while Manifest Destiny inspired many, it also provoked debate about morality, democracy, and the future character of the United States.
Before 1865, Manifest Destiny significantly worsened relations with Native American tribes. As settlers moved westward, they encroached on tribal lands, often ignoring or violating existing treaties. The belief in American superiority led to a widespread disregard for Native rights, culture, and sovereignty. Government policies reflected these attitudes, such as the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and the creation of the Permanent Indian Frontier. Native resistance was met with military force, leading to skirmishes and violent confrontations. Tribes were increasingly confined to defined areas or forced to relocate to Indian Territory, disrupting their traditional way of life. The buffalo, essential to Plains Indian culture and survival, were hunted to near-extinction, further eroding Native independence. Meanwhile, settlers saw Native Americans as barriers to progress, often portraying them in newspapers as savage or hostile. These deteriorating relationships set the stage for the full-scale Indian Wars that followed in the post-Civil War period.
Manifest Destiny was closely linked to American exceptionalism, the belief that the United States held a unique mission to lead and civilize the world through its values and institutions. Proponents of Manifest Destiny saw expansion not only as a right but as a moral obligation to spread democracy, liberty, and Christianity. They believed that the American way of life—anchored in Protestant ethics, individualism, and representative government—was superior to other cultures, especially those of Native Americans and Mexicans. This ideology justified displacing indigenous peoples and annexing territory from foreign powers, as it was framed as bringing “civilization” to supposedly backward or chaotic lands. American exceptionalism gave Manifest Destiny a moral dimension, presenting expansion as beneficial for both the United States and those being conquered or absorbed. This fusion of religious, racial, and political superiority created a powerful narrative that helped unite the nation behind an expansionist agenda and shaped how Americans viewed their role in the world.
Practice Questions
Explain two consequences of the belief in Manifest Destiny for American expansion between 1840 and 1895.
One consequence of Manifest Destiny was the justification of territorial expansion through war and treaties, such as the Mexican-American War, which led to the acquisition of vast southwestern lands. Americans believed it was their divine right to expand coast-to-coast, and this belief encouraged military action. Another consequence was the forced displacement of Native American tribes, as settlers pushed westward. Policies like Indian removal and the establishment of reservations were fueled by the idea that white Americans had a superior claim to the land, resulting in cultural destruction and violent conflicts with indigenous peoples who resisted relocation.
Write a narrative account of how the geography of North America influenced westward expansion during the period 1840 to 1895.
The geography of North America significantly influenced how and where settlers moved west between 1840 and 1895. Initially, the Great American Desert discouraged farming due to its dry, flat terrain. However, fertile areas beyond the Mississippi attracted pioneers, despite challenges like crossing the Rocky Mountains and vast plains. Natural routes such as the Oregon Trail were shaped by rivers and mountain passes. As settlers adapted to the landscape using new technologies like windmills and steel plows, more land became usable. Railroads eventually overcame many natural barriers, transforming difficult terrain into accessible regions and accelerating national expansion across the continent.
