Conflict on the Plains in the mid-19th century was marked by a breakdown in treaty agreements and increasing clashes between Native American tribes and American settlers and soldiers.
Fort Laramie Treaty (1851)
Background to the Treaty
As the United States expanded westward in the mid-1800s, increasing numbers of settlers, miners, and migrants began traveling across the Great Plains using established routes such as the Oregon Trail, California Trail, and Santa Fe Trail. These trails cut directly through lands traditionally used and inhabited by Native American tribes such as the Lakota Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Crow. The movement of thousands of settlers through these lands caused rising tensions between the newcomers and the Native populations.
To prevent conflict and ensure the safe movement of settlers, the U.S. government decided to negotiate a treaty with the Plains tribes. The aim was to maintain peace, protect settlers, and begin establishing clearer divisions of territory.
Objectives of the Treaty
The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 was signed at Fort Laramie, located in present-day Wyoming, between representatives of the U.S. government and various tribes of the Great Plains. The main goals of the treaty were:
To ensure safe passage for white settlers moving westward.
To reduce inter-tribal warfare by defining specific territories for each tribe.
To promote peaceful relations between Native Americans and the U.S. government.
To allow the construction of forts and roads such as the transcontinental railroad through Native lands.
To encourage trade and cooperation between Native Americans and the United States.
In return for agreeing to peace and allowing the U.S. to construct infrastructure, Native tribes were promised annual payments totaling 50,000 dollars per year for 50 years (Congress later reduced this to 10 years). These annuities were meant to support tribes who would increasingly rely on U.S. government supplies due to the loss of traditional hunting grounds.
Reasons for the Treaty’s Failure
Despite its lofty goals, the treaty ultimately failed to deliver lasting peace on the Plains. Several factors contributed to its collapse:
Poor communication and leadership: Many Native tribes did not operate under a single leader, and not all tribal members were represented or informed about the treaty's terms. Decisions made by certain chiefs were not always respected by the broader community.
Violation of territorial boundaries: White settlers and miners routinely entered lands guaranteed to Native tribes under the treaty, particularly during gold rushes. The U.S. government did little to prevent these violations.
Unreliable annuity payments: The U.S. government frequently failed to deliver promised goods and payments on time, creating mistrust and hardship.
Resource depletion: Settlers and U.S. military outposts strained local resources, especially buffalo herds, which were vital to the survival of Plains tribes.
Continued military expansion: Despite the treaty, the U.S. continued building military forts on Native land, leading to increased surveillance and eventual armed conflict.
The failure of the Fort Laramie Treaty set a precedent for broken agreements and rising tensions that would lead to the violent confrontations of the 1860s.
The Indian Wars (1862–1867)
Causes of the Indian Wars
The Indian Wars between 1862 and 1867 encompassed a series of violent clashes between U.S. military forces and Native American tribes across the Great Plains and surrounding regions. These wars were caused by:
Encroachment by settlers: Settlers moved into Native territories despite legal protections, disrupting tribal life and sparking resistance.
Decline in natural resources: The destruction of buffalo herds—a primary food source—caused widespread hardship and provoked violent defense of tribal lands.
Disregard for treaties: Existing treaties, including the Fort Laramie Treaty, were often ignored or violated by the government and settlers, making peaceful negotiation appear ineffective.
Cultural differences and misunderstandings: Native Americans saw land as communal, while Americans pushed for ownership and farming. These opposing worldviews made compromise difficult.
U.S. military presence: The growing number of forts and soldiers on the Plains increased tensions and made war more likely.
As tensions grew, many tribes united in opposition to U.S. expansion, leading to violent resistance and retribution.
The Sand Creek Massacre (1864)
Context
By 1864, relations between Native Americans and white settlers in the Colorado Territory had severely deteriorated. The Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes, led by Chief Black Kettle, had been involved in minor conflicts but were actively seeking peace. Black Kettle brought his band to camp near Fort Lyon under the belief that they would be protected by the U.S. Army.
They raised a white flag of surrender and a U.S. flag to signal their peaceful intentions. However, growing settler hostility and a desire for retaliation for earlier raids created a volatile situation.
The Attack
On November 29, 1864, Colonel John Chivington, a former Methodist preacher and Union Army officer, led approximately 700 soldiers from the Colorado Volunteer Cavalry in a surprise attack on the Cheyenne and Arapaho camp at Sand Creek.
The attack occurred at dawn while most of the camp was still asleep.
Around 150–200 Native Americans, mostly women, children, and the elderly, were brutally murdered.
Reports from witnesses described horrific atrocities, including scalping and mutilation of corpses.
Black Kettle survived but was deeply shaken by the betrayal.
Consequences
The massacre caused outrage across the country, including condemnation from members of Congress and the press.
A federal investigation condemned Chivington’s actions, though he was never formally punished due to his resignation.
The massacre triggered retaliatory raids by Native American warriors, intensifying the Indian Wars.
It led to the unification of several tribes, including the Sioux and Cheyenne, who began coordinated resistance efforts.
Fetterman's Trap (1866)
Background
After the Civil War, westward expansion resumed with renewed energy. The Bozeman Trail, which connected the Oregon Trail to gold fields in Montana, passed directly through the Powder River Country, a key hunting ground for the Lakota Sioux. The trail’s increasing use prompted the U.S. Army to build Fort Phil Kearny and two other forts to protect travelers.
Native leaders, especially Red Cloud, were furious about the violation of their lands and launched a campaign to drive out the soldiers.
The Ambush
On December 21, 1866, Captain William J. Fetterman, a Civil War veteran known for his arrogance, was ordered to lead 80 soldiers out from Fort Phil Kearny to rescue a wood-gathering party under attack.
Fetterman disobeyed direct orders from the fort's commander not to pursue beyond a defensive perimeter.
He was lured over a ridge by a decoy party led by Crazy Horse, a respected Oglala Lakota warrior.
Once out of sight of the fort, over 1,000 warriors from the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho ambushed the soldiers.
All 81 men (Fetterman, two officers, and 79 enlisted men) were killed within minutes. It became the worst defeat of U.S. forces on the Plains up to that time.
Significance
The Fetterman Massacre (as it became known) marked a significant Native American military victory and a major embarrassment for the U.S. Army.
The success of the ambush intensified the calls in Washington to find a peaceful solution, leading to new treaty negotiations.
It forced the U.S. military to abandon forts along the Bozeman Trail temporarily under the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 (distinct from the 1851 treaty).
Broader Impact of the Indian Wars (1862–1867)
On Native Americans
Massive loss of life: From massacres like Sand Creek to battle deaths in the Indian Wars, thousands of Native Americans were killed or wounded.
Displacement: Tribal populations were pushed onto increasingly small and isolated reservations.
Loss of independence: Many tribes became dependent on government rations and supplies, weakening their traditional economies and societal structures.
Cultural erosion: Traditional practices, languages, and religions began to erode as Native children were later sent to boarding schools aiming to assimilate them into white culture.
On the U.S. Government and Settlers
Political division: Public opinion was split. While some supported the extermination of “hostile” tribes, others were horrified by the cruelty of events like Sand Creek.
Military reform: The U.S. Army increased its presence on the Plains and developed new tactics, including winter campaigns and more aggressive pursuit of tribal groups.
Policy shift: The government moved toward a more organized system of reservations, enforced by treaties and later reinforced by legislation such as the Dawes Act in 1887.
Expansion secured: By defeating Native resistance, settlers gained access to previously contested lands, especially those rich in natural resources.
Policy Shifts and New Strategies
The failures of the Indian Wars led to significant changes in how the U.S. government approached Native affairs:
Reservation policy: Tribes were increasingly confined to reservations, where they were expected to adopt European-American agricultural lifestyles.
Peace commissions: The Indian Peace Commission of 1867 was established to end further conflict by promoting treaties and relocation rather than military conquest.
Long-term assimilation goals: Government-backed missionaries and agents worked to “civilize” Native populations, laying the groundwork for future education and land allotment policies.
Key Figures
Colonel John Chivington: Led the Sand Creek Massacre; widely condemned but never punished.
Chief Black Kettle: Cheyenne chief who sought peace but was betrayed; survived Sand Creek but later killed in 1868.
Captain William J. Fetterman: U.S. Army officer killed in the Fetterman Fight due to tactical blunders.
Red Cloud: Sioux leader who led resistance against the Bozeman Trail; a key figure in achieving the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868.
Crazy Horse: Renowned Lakota warrior; helped orchestrate Fetterman’s Trap and later played major roles in battles such as the Little Bighorn.
Important Terms to Know
Annuities: Yearly payments promised to tribes by the U.S. government, often consisting of goods and supplies.
Manifest Destiny: The belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across the continent, often at the expense of Native populations.
Reservation: Government-designated areas for Native tribes meant to isolate them from settlers and “civilize” them.
Guerrilla tactics: Hit-and-run warfare used effectively by Native tribes against U.S. military forces.
Bozeman Trail: A trail to Montana gold fields that became a focal point of conflict with the Sioux.
FAQ
The U.S. Army played a significant role in escalating tensions and violence on the Plains between 1862 and 1867. Although its stated mission was to protect settlers and enforce treaties, in practice, the Army often acted aggressively toward Native tribes. Military forts were constructed deep within tribal territories—such as Fort Phil Kearny on the Bozeman Trail—without tribal consent, provoking resistance. The Army was also responsible for harsh punitive campaigns, including winter attacks that destroyed food stores, horses, and villages. Officers like Colonel Chivington operated with little oversight, exemplified by the Sand Creek Massacre, which was not only an atrocity but also a rallying cry for Native retaliation. The Army frequently misinterpreted Native intentions, responding to isolated raids with full-scale operations. These overreactions and lack of diplomatic engagement deepened mistrust. The presence of the Army, especially when acting beyond civil control, turned many local disputes into prolonged military conflicts.
Tribal decisions to fight or seek peace were influenced by leadership, geography, experience with settlers, and past interactions with the U.S. government. Tribes such as the Lakota Sioux, led by figures like Red Cloud and Crazy Horse, chose resistance due to direct threats to their lands and way of life, particularly from military incursions like those along the Bozeman Trail. These tribes had strong warrior cultures and were more inclined to defend their territories aggressively. In contrast, other tribes, such as Black Kettle’s band of Cheyenne, pursued peace, believing cooperation might ensure survival. These leaders hoped that negotiating treaties and displaying non-hostile intentions—such as camping under a U.S. flag—would protect their people. Some groups were simply too weakened by disease, famine, or previous conflicts to fight, while others were divided internally, with some bands choosing peace and others preparing for war. These varying responses highlight the complexity of Native resistance and diplomacy.
Communication failures were a key factor in the collapse of peace during this period. Firstly, cultural and linguistic differences created misunderstandings during treaty negotiations. Many Native leaders did not speak English, and translations were often incomplete or inaccurate. U.S. negotiators frequently misunderstood tribal governance; they assumed that agreements with a few chiefs bound entire tribes, ignoring the decentralized nature of many Plains societies. As a result, younger warriors or independent bands often rejected treaties they had no role in creating. Additionally, the U.S. government did a poor job of explaining treaty terms and failed to follow through on logistical details, such as the delivery of annuities. Native tribes often received goods late or not at all, undermining faith in U.S. promises. There was also a lack of consistent policy—different officials gave contradictory assurances. These repeated breakdowns in trust, caused by poor communication and broken promises, pushed many tribes toward armed resistance.
The Plains conflicts of 1862–1867 had a lasting influence on the U.S. government's approach to Native American policy. After witnessing the costs and instability of prolonged warfare, the federal government shifted its strategy toward containment and assimilation. The reservation system was expanded, with tribes increasingly confined to designated areas under federal supervision. The government pushed for the relocation of nomadic tribes into fixed settlements, where they were expected to abandon traditional practices and adopt farming. Following defeats like the Fetterman Fight, the U.S. established the Indian Peace Commission in 1867, signaling a temporary preference for treaty-making over military action. However, this was paired with efforts to destroy tribal autonomy through education and religion. These changes laid the groundwork for later policies like the Dawes Act (1887), which aimed to break up communal landholding. The conflicts also reinforced stereotypes of Native people as hostile, justifying further intervention and marginalization in the eyes of many policymakers.
Native American tactics during the Indian Wars were based on mobility, surprise, and knowledge of the terrain, contrasting sharply with the conventional tactics of the U.S. Army. Plains tribes like the Sioux and Cheyenne excelled in guerilla-style warfare—employing hit-and-run attacks, ambushes, and decoys. Warriors traveled lightly on horseback and could strike swiftly before dispersing, making them difficult to pin down. Their intimate understanding of the landscape gave them a strategic advantage, especially in setting traps like the one used in the Fetterman Fight. By contrast, the U.S. Army relied on fixed fortifications, long supply lines, and structured battle formations. Soldiers were often unfamiliar with the terrain and slowed by wagons and equipment, making them vulnerable to surprise attacks. Additionally, Native forces avoided prolonged engagements, focusing instead on raids that damaged morale and logistics. These differences meant that, despite being outgunned, Native warriors were often more effective in specific engagements, forcing the Army to adapt its strategies.
Practice Questions
Explain two consequences of the Fort Laramie Treaty (1851).
One consequence of the Fort Laramie Treaty was increased tension between Native American tribes and the U.S. government due to repeated violations by settlers. Despite territorial agreements, settlers and miners trespassed on tribal lands, undermining trust and leading to conflict. Another consequence was the weakening of tribal unity. The U.S. negotiated with select leaders, but many tribes lacked centralized leadership, and not all bands accepted the treaty. This caused divisions within and between tribes, making enforcement difficult and ultimately contributing to the breakdown of peaceful relations and the outbreak of the Indian Wars in the 1860s.
Write a narrative account of the Fetterman Fight (1866).
The Fetterman Fight took place on December 21, 1866, during Red Cloud’s War. Captain William Fetterman led 80 soldiers from Fort Phil Kearny, ordered not to pursue too far. Ignoring orders, he followed a decoy party led by Crazy Horse beyond safety. Over 1,000 Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors ambushed and killed the entire U.S. force. This Native American victory shocked the U.S. Army and exposed its vulnerability on the Plains. The event increased pressure to negotiate peace, leading to the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 and the temporary U.S. withdrawal from forts along the Bozeman Trail.
